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131-530: The Antankarana split off from the Sakalava in the early 17th century following a succession dispute. The group settled at the northern end of the island where they established sovereignty over and integrated the existing communities. During periods of conflict with Sakalava in the 17th century and the Kingdom of Imerina in the 19th century, the community periodically sought refuge in the natural stone shelters and caves of

262-414: A distinct personality—and offered their own house with guardians dedicated to their service. Ralambo then transformed the nature of the relationship between sampy and ruler: whereas previously the sampy had been seen as tools at the disposal of community leaders, under Ralambo they became divine protectors of the king's sovereignty and the integrity of the state, which would be preserved through their power on

393-449: A fady against medical injections, surgery or modern medicines due to their association with their historic enemies the Merina, who were the first to use them widely; instead, tromba ceremonies and traditional herbal remedies are commonly used for healing. These taboos are most strongly applied in the center of Antankarana territory around the village of Ambatoharaña and less so in the villages at

524-714: A family typically leave their father's house and build their own from wood and thatch gathered locally. After marrying a young woman will leave her family's home to move into her husband's house, where she manages the household and assists in planting and harvesting rice. The husband is responsible for earning money for basic necessities and farming the family's land. A young couple typically receives furniture and other essentials as wedding gifts from friends, family and community members. Divorce and remarriage are common in Antankarana society. Like elsewhere in Madagascar, Antankarana society

655-586: A heroic and near mythical status among the greatest ancient sovereigns of Merina history. Ralambo was the first to assign the name of Imerina ("Land of the Merina people ") to the central highland territories where he ruled. Ralambo expanded and defended the Kingdom of Imerina through a combination of diplomacy and successful military action aided by the procurement of the first firearms in Imerina by way of trade with kingdoms on

786-411: A kind of nature spirit. Rice is the foundation of every meal, and is often eaten with fish broth, greens, beans or squash. Manioc and green bananas are staples most commonly eaten when other, preferred, foods are too expensive or out of season. The Antankarana were historically herders and although they are now generally agriculturalists, cattle are kept for milk. They are also viewed as a form of wealth;

917-508: A large part of the island's north as his territory, which he split into five provinces each ruled by one of his sons. This territory was rapidly reduced from the south by Zafin'i'mena prince Andriamandisoarivo, who led violent campaigns into bordering Antankarana territory to expand the frontiers of what was to become the Sakalava Kingdom of Iboina at the end of the 17th century. Many Zafin'i'fotsy nobles were killed or quickly surrendered to

1048-425: A large rolled stone disc acting as a barrier) – that rendered the town more resistant to Vazimba attacks. Andrianjaka's policies and tactics highlighted and increased the separation between the king and his subjects. He transformed social divisions into spatial divisions by assigning each clan to a specific geographical region within his kingdom. Andrianjaka unified the principalities on what he later designated as

1179-595: A palace on the site that became the seat of royal power in the Merina kingdom. A significant alteration of the landscape made under the rule of Andrianampoinimerina was the introduction of irrigation systems that allowed for the farming of rice paddies. To the present day rice remains a staple of Malagasy cuisine. The digging of canals and dikes was done by vast numbers of slaves placed under royal servitude, or fanompoana. The landscape of Imerina and its geographical manipulation had significant ritual meaning in Merina culture. The irrigation system introduced to Antananarivo,

1310-511: A policy of non-interference in local governance traditions. Tsimiaro III was presumably deposed in 2004 following allegations of corruption, and Lamboeny III was selected to succeed him. However, subsequent conflicts between Tsimiaro III and Lamboeny III have reinstated or maintained Tsimiaro III's position as the de facto King of the Antakarana. He continues to preside over the Antakarana traditional royal ceremonies to this day as well as representing

1441-408: A political capital 24 km (15 mi) west at Antananarivo , currently the seat of government for the modern state of Madagascar. The Merina kings and queens who ruled over greater Madagascar in the 19th century were the descendants of a long line of hereditary Merina royalty originating with Andriamanelo , who is traditionally credited with founding Imerina in 1540. In 1883, France invaded

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1572-498: A preparation reserved uniquely for this holiday. This delicacy was made during the festival by sealing shredded zebu meat with suet in a decorative clay jar. The confit would then be conserved in a pit for twelve months to be served at the next year's fandroana. The marriage tradition of the vodiondry , still practiced to this day throughout the Highlands, is said to have originated with Andriamanelo. According to oral history, after

1703-415: A ritual mast-raising ceremony called the tsangantsainy . Although some accounts date the ritual back to the origins of Antankarana kingship, the specific features of the ceremony as practiced today are rooted in historical events of the 19th century. The ceremony includes a pilgrimage to Nosy Mitsio to commemorate the flight of Antankarana refugees to the island in the 1830s to escape the advancing armies of

1834-466: A row on the Rova grounds). To commemorate his greatness, his subjects erected a small wooden house called a small sacred house on top of his tomb. Future Merina sovereigns and nobles continued to construct similar tomb houses on their tombs well into the 19th century. After the conquests of the 19th century, approximately half of the Merina population consisted of the descendants of slaves. This distinction

1965-549: A royal residence and symbolize the indivisibility of the kingdom. From its founding, the Antankarana Kingdom was ruled by an unbroken series of nobles of Andriantsirotso's line. He was succeeded by Lamboeny (1710–1790), then Tehimbola (1790–1802), Boanahajy (1802–1809) and Tsialana I (1809–1822). The Kingdom of Imerina rapidly expanded over the first several decades of the 19th century, launching regular military campaigns to bring coastal communities under Merina control. As

2096-604: A shipwrecked British sailor who wrote about the Malagasy slave trade of in his journal that would be published and widely distributed in England. It was this fixation on the slave trade in Madagascar that initially drew the British to the Merina, giving the Merina the firepower to extend their empire and trading networks across Madagascar. Though the British later returned the island of Réunion to France, they retained Mauritius and included it in

2227-428: A sizable cache of firearms and gunpowder, materials that helped to establish and preserve his dominance and expand his rule over greater Imerina. Political life on the island from the 16th century was characterised by sporadic conflict between the Merina and Sakalava kingdoms, originating with Sakalava slave-hunting incursions into Imerina. By the early 19th century, the Merina were able to overcome rival tribes such as

2358-554: A standard, orthodox form of Islam is negligible. Beginning in the late 19th century, the Shādhiliyya Sufi order spread among the Antankarana. According to local traditions, the order was initially spread by Uthmān b. ʿAbd al-Laṭīf, originally from Anjouan . His successors later helped establish the order among the Antankarana and within northern Madagascar. Antankarana culture shares many common points with that of their Sakalava neighbors. Their rituals are similar and honor many of

2489-429: A wide range of fady (ancestral taboos), particularly including several that serve to protect wildlife and wilderness areas. The traditional economy of the Antankarana revolved around fishing and livestock, although more recently they have adopted farming; many are salary earners working in civil administration, teaching, trade and other areas. The Antankarana were originally a branch of the Sakalava royal line called

2620-415: A year at the village of Ambatoharaña, Muslims from across the northern and western parts of Madagascar congregate to visit the tombs of Muslim kings buried here. The form of Islam practiced by the Antankarana is highly syncretic and blends traditional ancestor worship and local customs and beliefs with major holidays and cultural elements borrowed from Arab Muslim culture. The number of Antankarana who practice

2751-406: Is Antsiranana (formerly Diego-Suarez). Ambilobe, where the current king resides. is the nearest major urban area to the traditional seat of royal Antankarana power at Ambatoharaña. Sakalava people The Sakalava are an ethnic group of Madagascar . They are found on the western and northwest region of the island, in a band along the coast. The Sakalava constitute about 6.2 percent of

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2882-641: Is a branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language group derived from the Barito languages , spoken in southern Borneo . The Antankarana were historically fishermen and pastoralist zebu herders, although in recent years most have become agriculturalists. Sea fishing is carried out in two-man canoes made from a single hollowed out log. Antankarana fishermen used these canoes to hunt whales, turtles and fish. They also used nets to hunt in rivers, where they could catch eels, fish, crayfish and other food sources. Salt production

3013-403: Is calcified in the present day by the classification of the descendants of slaves as "blacks" and those of freemen as "whites". The use of color to describe social distinction is further supplemented by the racial distinctions of the Malagasy population tracing back to the original settlement of the island, with Austronesian racial features are contrasted by African racial features. Andriamanelo

3144-468: Is credited with introducing astrology in Imerina. The Merina rite of circumcision , described by Bloch (1986) in great detail, continued to be practiced by the Merina monarchy through the end of the 19th century in precisely the way first established by Andriamanelo generations before. Many elements of these rituals continue to form part of the circumcision traditions of Merina families in the 21st century. The origins of these practices can be traced back to

3275-470: Is located in the central highlands of Madagascar. It is notable that the word Imerina is derived from the Malagasy word meaning the "occupancy of a prominent place." Consistent with the name, much of the documented manipulation of the land in the Merina kingdom involve the building of palaces for royalty or of temples. Andrianampoinimerina (c.1745–1809) was the first to use the toponym of Imerina after conquering Antananarivo. He projected his power by constructing

3406-627: Is that of the Ndriambavibe . The Antankarana community selects a single noble woman to hold this position, which has similar authority and importance to that of the king. She is not his wife; rather, she has a separate leadership role to fulfill. The Antankarana are recognized among Malagasy as one of the few remaining ethnic groups in Madagascar that continues to reassert the ancestral authority of their king through continued practice of traditional kingship rituals. Antankarana homes are typically raised on stilts above ground level. Young men seeking to start

3537-634: Is the modern Malagasy translation of Sakalava meaning long ravines, denoting the relatively flat nature of the land in western Madagascar. Another theory is that the word is possibly from the Arabic saqaliba , which is in turn derived from Late Latin sclavus , meaning slave. Sakalavas are considered to be a mix of Austronesians and Bantu peoples . Austronesian people started settling in Madagascar between 400 and 900 CE. They arrived by boats and were from various southeast Asian and Oceanian groups. The earliest confirmed settlements, on Nosy Mangabe and in

3668-466: Is the written classic of Merina culture, compiled from oral traditions and stories. The Tantara was collected by the Jesuit priest François Callet in the 1860s. The Tantara and other printed works are held in such high regard that very few can be obtained for any price. Present day Malagasy culture is still tied extensively to the past. Many ceremonies involve reenactments of the past, such as tromba , or

3799-613: The Bezanozano , the Betsimisaraka , and eventually the Sakalava kingdom and bring them under the Merina crown. It is through this process that the ethnonym "Merina" began to be commonly used, as it denotes prominence in the Malagasy language . Though some sources describe the Merina expansion as the unification of Madagascar, this period of Merina expansion was seen by neighboring tribes such as

3930-508: The Kingdom of Imerina and to visit the tombs of ancestors who died there; until recently, it has sometimes also included raising both French and Antankarana banners to honor the 1841 treaty signed with the French. The king is selected by a council of elder members of the royal family in the ruling line. He is responsible for reciting joro (ancestral invocations) at ceremonies where the ancestors' blessings are requested. Another important social role

4061-484: The Kingdom of Madagascar and officially the Kingdom of Imerina ( Malagasy : Fanjakan'Imerina ; c.  1540 –1897), was a pre-colonial state off the coast of Southeast Africa that, by the 18th century, dominated most of what is now Madagascar . It spread outward from Imerina , the Central Highlands region primarily inhabited by the Merina ethnic group with a spiritual capital at Ambohimanga and

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4192-456: The Swahili , Arab and Indian and Tamil traders came to the island's northern regions. Enslaved people from mainland Africa were brought to the island in increasing numbers between the 15th and the 18th centuries, particularly to the region where Sakalava people now live. This influx of diverse people led to various Malagasy sub-ethnicities in the mid-2nd millennium. The Portuguese traders were

4323-550: The Zafin'i'fotsy (children of silver). This group split off from the Sakalava in the 16th century following a dispute with the Zafin'i'mena (children of gold) that ended with the latter's exclusive right to the kingship. Having been refused the right to the throne, the Zafin'i'fotsy left the Sakalava homeland on the southwestern coast to settle just north of the boundaries of Sakalava control. The first Antankarana king, Kozobe (1614–39), claimed

4454-561: The Zafiraminia (sons of Ramini) clans from the southwestern part of the island, possibly from Arab origin. The demand for slaves by first Omani Arabs who controlled the Zanzibar slave trade, and later European slave-traders, led to slave raiding operations and exercise of control on the major ports on the north and northwest region of Madagascar. Initially the Arabs exclusively supplied weapons to

4585-404: The sampin'andriana : the "Royal Sampy") which were all in the possession of the king. These royal sampy, including Kelimalaza , continued to be worshiped until their supposed destruction in a bonfire by Queen Ranavalona II upon her public conversion to Christianity in 1869. Also beginning under Ralambo, the ritual sanctification of the realm occurred through the annual fandroana festival at

4716-441: The twelve sacred hills of Imerina at Ambohitratrimo, Ambohimanga, Ilafy, Alasora, Antsahadita, Ambohimanambony, Analamanga, Ambohitrabiby, Namehana, Ambohidrapeto, Ambohijafy and Ambohimandranjaka. These hills became and remain the spiritual heart of Imerina, which was further expanded over a century later when Andrianampoinimerina redesignated the twelve sacred hills to include several different sites. Under Andriamasinavalona,

4847-402: The Antakarana kingdom within Madagascar and abroad. There are 50,000 Antakarana in Madagascar as of 2013. They live in the northernmost part of the island, and claim Malagasy and Arab ancestry. They are an offshoot of the Sakalava people. Their territory begins at the northern tip of the island at Antsiranana and extends down the west coast, including the island of Nosy Mitsio. It is bounded to

4978-482: The Antankarana in exchange for rights to the islands of Nosy Mitsio, Nosy Faly, Nosy Be and Nosy Komba . The French intercession eventually repelled the Merina, allowing the king to reestablish the capital at Ambatoharaña, but more than 40 years passed before the entire Antankarana had permanently returned to the mainland. Upon his death, Tsimiaro was buried at his request in the Ankarana cave where he had taken refuge from

5109-417: The Antankarana would convert to Islam. Although many of his party were gunned down, the king and most of his subjects escaped to the island of Nosy Mitsio , where they converted; many others were drowned in the attempt to cross. The site of the crossing is most commonly believed to be the village of Ambavan'ankarana, which retains a sacred character and has become a site of pilgrimage and ritual commemoration of

5240-597: The Arab traders. It was adopted by the rulers of the Sakalava people in the eighteenth century, in order to gain the military support of the Omani and Zanzibar Sultanates, as the influence of Merina people and the European traders increased. Significant percentage of the Sakalava converted to Islam during the reign of Andriantsoly, while continuing their traditional religious practices such as spirit worship. Christianity (35%) arrived among

5371-545: The Betsimisaraka as aggressive acts of colonialism. By 1824, the Merina captured the port of Mahajanga situated on the western coast of the island marking a further expansion of power. Under Radama I , the Merina continued to launch military expeditions that both expanded imperial control and enriched military chiefs. The ability of the Merina to overcome neighboring tribes was due to British firepower and military training. The British had an interest in establishing trade with

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5502-412: The Highlands were first domesticated for food in Imerina under the reign of Ralambo, and he introduced the practice and design of cattle pen construction, as well as the traditional ceremony of the fandroana (the "Royal Bath"), to celebrate his culinary discovery. Upon succeeding his father, Andrianjaka (1612–1630) led a successful military campaign to capture the final major Vazimba stronghold in

5633-498: The Hova favored male heirs, and the marriage between Andriamanelo's Vazimba and Hova parents had produced two sons and a daughter. To prevent conflict, the queen decided that Andriamanelo would inherit the crown upon his mother's death and would be succeeded not by his own child but by his younger brother. This system of succession was ordered by the queens to be followed for all time, and applied to families as well: in any instance where there

5764-487: The Kingdom of Imerina was composed of six provinces ( toko ): Avaradrano, constituting Antananarivo and land to the northeast of the capital, including Ambohimanga; Vakinisisaony, including the land to the south of Avaradrano and its capital at Alasora; Vonizongo to the northwest of Antananarivo with its capital at Fihaonana; Marovatana to the south of Vonizongo, with its capital at Ambohidratrimo; Ambodirano, south of Marovatana with its capital at Fenoarivo; and Vakinankaratra to

5895-414: The Malagasy highlands in general, ritual circumcision has remained a constant factor in Merina and Malagasy culture. The permanence of the circumcision ritual continues to the modern day. Indigenous silk clothing ( landibe ) is especially important in highland cultures, including with the Merina. It was worn during ancestral funerary ceremonies . The Tantaran'ny Andriana or Histories of Kings

6026-504: The Mananara Valley, date to the eighth century. Bantu-speaking farmers, moving from Central and East Africa, arrived in Madagascar in the ninth century. According to Gwyn Campbell, "the most accurate genetic data to date indicates that the founding settlement, on the northwest coast, comprised a maximum of 20 households, totalling [sic] around 500 people, either genetically mixed, or half Austronesian and half African." Later, Africans of

6157-553: The Merina (1883–85), and again during the successful expedition of 1895 that ended in French colonization of the island and the dismantling of the Merina monarchy. His son Abdourahaman would go on to fight on the side of the French during World War I. Tsialana II was succeeded by Lamboeny II (1925–1938), Tsialana III (1948–1959), Tsimiharo II (1959–1982) and Tsimiaro III (1982–), Issa. After Madagascar regained independence from France in 1960 its various administrations interfered little with

6288-556: The Merina Kingdom signed a trade agreement with the United States in 1867. She replaced the incumbent Prime Minister with his brother, Rainilaiarivony , who retained the role for three decades and married each successive queen. The next sovereign, Ranavalona II , converted the nation to Christianity and had all the sampy (ancestral royal talismans) burnt in a public display. The last Merina sovereign, Queen Ranavalona III , acceded

6419-517: The Merina Kingdom to establish a protectorate . France invaded again in 1894 and conquered the kingdom, making it a French colony , in what became known as the Franco-Hova Wars . Madagascar's central highlands were first inhabited between 200 BC–300 AD by the island's earliest settlers, the Vazimba , who appear to have arrived by pirogue from southeastern Borneo to establish simple villages in

6550-400: The Merina from his territory, but was unsuccessful. The Merina backlash forced Tsimiaro to lead his people to refuge among the rocks of Ankarana in 1838 or 1837, where they lived for over a year. During this time the king was betrayed by one of his own people and the group was surrounded by Merina soldiers. According to oral history, the king prayed for God's help and swore that if they survived,

6681-410: The Merina kingdom due to its central position on the island since 1815. Merina imperial expeditions became more frequent and violent after the renunciation of the second Merina-British treaty . Between 1828 and 1840, more than 100,000 men were killed and more than 200,000 enslaved by Merina forces. Imperial rule was met with resistance from escaped slaves and other refugees from imperial rule numbering in

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6812-445: The Merina monarchy that resulted in the 1896 French colonization of Madagascar . The Antankarana are one of the few communities that continues to honor a single king and reaffirm his sacred ancestral role through traditional ceremonies that date back centuries. Culturally the Antankarana have many similarities with the neighboring Sakalava. They practice tromba (ancestral spirit possession) and believe in nature spirits. They adhere to

6943-463: The Merina neared the Antankarana homeland they established posts along major trade routes where taxes were charged to Antankarana and other merchants, establishing economic control over the territory; this was soon followed by the installation of Merina administrators to govern the territory. Tsialana I was forced to become a vassal of the Merina sovereign. From 1835 to 1837, his son and successor, King Tsimiaro I (1822–1882), made repeated attempts to expel

7074-449: The Merina population began holding slaves. As imperial conquests continually increased the supply of slaves captured from neighboring tribes, the population of Antananarivo grew from around 10,000 in 1820 to 50,000 in 1833. The demand in slaves matched the rise in supply as a result of fanompoana , or mandatory military service , being established in the Merina kingdom thereby drawing able bodied free men away from agricultural labor and into

7205-483: The Merina. Other nobles are mainly entombed in the Islamic cemetery near Ambatoharaña. When the French agreed to recognize Malagasy sovereignty in 1862, they retained their claimed right to the Antankarana and Sakalava protectorates they had established. Tsimiaro was succeeded by his son, Tsialana II, (1883–1924) who was born on Nosy Mitsio in 1843. He collaborated with the French actively during their first expedition against

7336-473: The Rova, and in 1820 he designated the building as the first site to house what came to be known as the Palace School , the first formal European-style school in Imerina. Sovereigns were enthroned in this building and their mortal remains were displayed here before burial, rendering Besakana "the official state room for civil affairs... regarded as the throne of the kingdom." The early Merina fighters under

7467-475: The Sakalava extended across what is now the provinces of Antsiranana , Mahajanga and Toliara . The Sakalava kingdom reached its peak geographic spread between 1730 and 1760, under King Andrianinevenarivo. According to local tradition, the founders of the Sakalava kingdom were Maroseraña (or Maroseranana, "those who owned many ports") princes, from the Fiherenana (now Toliara ). They may also be descended from

7598-636: The Sakalava in exchange for slaves. These slaves were obtained from slave raids to Comoros and other coastal settlements of Madagascar, as well as from merchant ships arriving from the Swahili coast of Africa. The Sakalava kingdom quickly subjugated the neighbouring territories in the Mahafaly area, starting with the southern ones. The Merina oral histories and documents in Comoros mention series of annual expeditions by Sakalava slave raiders against their villages through

7729-425: The Sakalava kingdom explains the great diversity among its constituents, who continue to perpetuate distinctive regional customs, both culturally and linguistically. About the latter, the only real unifying factor of the different Sakalava dialects is their common membership to the western subgroup of Madagascar languages with strong influence from Africa, which distinguishes them from central and east coast languages of

7860-450: The Sakalava never again posed a threat to the central highlands, which remained under Merina control until the French colonization of the island, a century later, in 1896. The dynasty Zafimbolamena Belihisafra . After the reign of Abdriantonkafo the kingdom was split into two entities: Andramahatindriarivo was succeeded by In 1941 islands of Nosy Be and Nosy Komba became a French Protectorate. The historical formation process of

7991-403: The Sakalava people (60%), called Fomba Gasy, was centered around royal ancestor worship, aided by the noble dady lineage who preserved the remains of the deceased rulers. The dady priests would conduct a ceremony called Tromba , whereby they divined the spirits of the dead ancestors and communicated their words back to the Sakalava people. Islam (5%) arrived among the Sakalava people with

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8122-498: The Sakalava people with European traders. In early 19th century, the Sakalava sought military support of the European colonial powers in order to contain the reach of the Merina kingdom. The French military power led by Captain Passot arrived on Sakalava ports, accompanied with Jesuit and Catholic Christian missionaries. The island town of Nosy Be became their mission post, and by early 20th century, numerous Catholic churches had been built in

8253-442: The Sakalava people, and has centered around ceremonies and processions for the spirits of their deceased royalty. The procession is more than a religious event, it has historically been a form of community celebration and identity affirming festival. Tromba is also found among other ethnic groups in other parts of Madagascar, but with Sakalava it has had a long association and support of the royal dynasties, which mutually perpetuated

8384-416: The Sakalava region. Protestantism attempted to reach the Sakalava, but the animosity of Muslim Sakalava royalty for the Merina nobility who were already Protestants, as well as the refusal of Sakalava to abandon their traditional practices such as royalty spirit worship, particularly their Tromba -tradition, has made Sakalava continue with either Islam or Catholicism. Tromba has been a historic feature of

8515-557: The Tsongay region (now Mahajanga ). The chiefs of the different coastal settlements on the island began to extend their power to control trade. The first significant Sakalava kingdoms were formed about the 1650s. They dominated the western of northwestern regions of Madagascar during the 1700s. The Sakalava chiefdoms of the Menabe , centred in what was then known as Andakabe, now the town of Morondava , were principal among them. The influence of

8646-423: The advancing Sakalava armies, but oral history celebrates several who resisted, including Andriamanpangy, a descendant of Kozobe. His son Andriantsirotso (1692–1710) founded the Antankarana kingdom, leading the Zafin'i'fotsy further north into the area now protected as Ankarana Reserve and declaring his sovereignty over the north. He was accepted as king both by his own people and by the communities already living in

8777-434: The army. In the second half of the 19th century, the Merina had begun to import slaves from East Africa . This was driven by an economy that critically relied on slave labor as well as the demands of Merina court officials that had personal financial interests. Emancipation of domestic slaves began in 1877, when an estimated 150,000 slaves were freed. However, these newly freed slaves were made into an imperial labor reserve,

8908-408: The central authority of Imerina, represented the unification between the Merina royalty and its people. This infrastructural feat paralleled the ritual sprinkling of water known as tsodrano done to represent the unification of land and people. Merina beliefs held the connection between cultural history and the landscape in high regard. The use of water to represent spiritual connections between people,

9039-412: The coast. Imposing a capitation tax for the first time (the vadin-aina , or "price of secure life"), he was able to establish the first standing Merina royal army and established units of blacksmiths and silversmiths to equip them. He famously repelled an attempted invasion by an army of the powerful western coastal Betsimisaraka people . According to oral history, the wild zebu cattle that roamed

9170-552: The condition that the line of sovereigns ensured the sampy were shown the respect due to them. By collecting the twelve greatest sampy—twelve being a sacred number in Merina cosmology—and transforming their nature, Ralambo strengthened the supernatural power and legitimacy of the royal line of Imerina. Oral history recounts numerous instances where sampy were taken into battle, and subsequent successes and varying miracles were attributed to them, including several key victories against Sakalava marauders. The propagation of similar sampy at

9301-504: The construction and use of pirogues . While these technologies were not discovered during his reign, Andriamanelo may have been among the first sovereigns in Imerina to make wide-scale use of them. Captives from tribal raids were made into the Malagasy slave population. Surpluses of these populations were sent to foreign traders on the coast. These traders were initially Arab and Indian, though Europeans began to join those demanding slaves at

9432-495: The creature's survival, the poison would instead be ingested by the accused himself. Andriamanelo was the first in the highlands to transform lowland swamps into irrigated rice paddies through the construction of dikes in the valleys around Alasora. Under Andrianjaka, the plains surrounding Antananarivo were gradually transformed into vast, surplus-producing rice paddies. This feat was accomplished by mobilizing large numbers of his able-bodied subjects to construct dikes that enabled

9563-432: The dead with the living. The Antankarana, like many other coastal groups, practice tromba (spirit possession) as a means to commune with ancestors. The royal ancestral spirits that possess tromba mediums are almost always of Sakalava ancestry. It is widely believed that the spirits of the dead often inhabit crocodiles, and it is often fady among the Antankarana to kill these animals. The Antankarana also believe in tsiny ,

9694-473: The east by the Bemarivo River and extends south to the village of Tetezambato. Although subject to all national laws and government, the Antakarana are also united in their recognition of the authority of a king ( Ampanjaka ) who is the living descendant of a line of Antankarana royalty going back nearly four centuries. The authority of this king is reaffirmed every five years at the village of Ambatoharaña in

9825-408: The eighteenth century. The Merina king Radama I bought guns in late 18th century, launched a war with the Sakalava, which ended the hegemony of the Sakalava kingdom and their slave raids. The Merina then reversed the historical enslavement their people had faced, and began supplying slaves. Though the Merina were never to annex the two last Sakalava strongholds of Menabe and Boina ( Mahajanga ),

9956-526: The end of the 18th century. These expeditions were aided by guns obtained from the Arabs, a weapon that both Comoros and Merina people lacked. The largest and one of the most favored ports for slave trade on Madagascar was the Sakalava coastal town of Mahajanga . The Sakalava had a monopoly on slave trade in Madagascar till the end of the 18th century. Although smaller by population, their weapons permitted them wide reach and power, allowing them to force other more populous ethnic groups to pay tribute to them in

10087-441: The exodus. In 1838-9 an agreement was signed between the Sakalava king and Seyyid Said, King of Zanzibar, to give Said control over the Sakalava and Antankarana kingdoms; this agreement never came to the attention of Tsimiaro and resulted in no changes in governance on the ground. While in exile on Nosy Mitsio, Tsimiaro traveled to Ile Bourbon to conclude a treaty with the French on 5 April 1841 that guaranteed French protection for

10218-551: The first Europeans to arrive in the 15th century, followed by other European powers. The founder of Sakalava legacy was Andriamisara. His descendant Andriandahifotsy ("the White Prince"), after 1610, then extended his authority northwards, past the Mangoky River , aided by weapons obtained in exchange for slave trading. His two sons, Andriamanetiarivo and Andriamandisoarivo (also known as Tsimanatona ) extended gains further up to

10349-401: The first king of Imerina were equipped with iron-tipped spears, an innovation credited to Andriamanelo himself, who may have been the first among the Hova to use smithed iron in this way. Andrianjaka imposed an intimidating change to the traditional form of justice, the trial by ordeal : rather than administering tangena poison to an accused person's rooster to determine their innocence by

10480-413: The grasslands in their northwest region. Unlike the Merina and Betsileo people of the interior who became highly productive rice farmers, the coastal and valley region Sakalava have historically had limited agriculture. However, in contemporary Madagascar, migrants have expanded farms and agriculture into the northwestern provinces. Kingdom of Imerina The Kingdom of Merina , also known as

10611-595: The highlands on the hill of Analamanga . There he established the fortified compound ( rova ) that would form the heart of his new capital city of Antananarivo . Upon his orders, the first structures within this fortified compound (known as the Rova of Antananarivo ) were constructed: several traditional royal houses were built, and plans for a series of royal tombs were designed. These buildings took on an enduring political and spiritual significance, ensuring their preservation until being destroyed by fire in 1995. Andrianjaka obtained

10742-424: The individual wearer only and were commonplace objects possessed by anyone from slave children to kings. After Ralambo received a highly powerful sampy called Kelimalaza that was distinguished by its supposed capacity to extend protection to an entire community, he sought out and amassed a total of twelve others from communities across Imerina believed to have such a quality. These sampy were personified—complete with

10873-486: The island's dense forests. By the 15th century the Hova people from the southeastern coast had gradually migrated into the central highlands where they established hilltop villages interspersed among the existing Vazimba settlements, which were ruled by local kings and queens. The two peoples coexisted peacefully for several generations and are known to have intermarried. In this way, a reigning Vazimba queen (alternately given in

11004-645: The island's resources. His liberal policies angered the aristocracy , however, and Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony had the King strangled in a coup d'état . This aristocratic revolution saw Rasoherina , the queen dowager , placed on the throne upon her acceptance of a constitutional monarchy that gave greater power to the Prime Minister. Under her reign, the Lambert Charter was publicly burned in January 1866, and

11135-479: The island, which are primarily Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) languages. The Sakalava people are widely distributed, over about 128,000 square kilometers in a band along the coast from Onilahy River in the southwest to Nosy Be in the north. These people also feature the zebu cattle herds similar to those found in Africa, which are less common in other regions and interior of the island. The traditional religion of

11266-418: The island. The Merina kingdom nearly consolidated all of Madagascar into a single nation before French colonization in 1895. King Andriamasinavalona quartered the kingdom to be ruled by his four favourite sons, producing persistent fragmentation and warfare between principalities in Imerina. He extended the borders of the kingdom to their largest historical extent prior to the kingdom's fragmentation. It

11397-403: The kingdom to be his royal due. From the time of Andriamanelo forward, it became a marriage tradition for the groom to offer vodiondry to the bride's family. Over time the customary offerings of meat have been increasingly replaced by a symbolic piastre , sums of money and other gifts. Andriamanelo's son Ralambo is credited with introducing the tradition of polygamy in Imerina. He also introduced

11528-399: The land, and ancestors remains common in the present day. By the 1820s, an increased European population had superimposed many Western geographic features onto Imerina. This involved the introduction of non native plants and trees. This proved particularly successful for Europeans as the Malagasy soil and climate were particularly conducive to growing European plants and vegetables. Before

11659-456: The modern Ankarana Reserve, eventually taking their name from the locale and holding it as sacred. In the early 19th century an Antankarana king signed a treaty with French envoys in Reunion that mobilized French troops to expel the Merina from Antankarana territory in exchange for French control over several small islands off Madagascar's west coast. They also aided the French in staging attacks on

11790-529: The monarchy of Madagascar. Prime Minister Rainilaiarivory had succeeded in playing Great Britain and France against one another, but now France could meddle without fear of reprisals from Britain. In 1895, a French flying-column landed in Mahajanga (Majunga) and marched by way of the Betsiboka River to the capital, Antananarivo , taking the city's defenders by surprise since they had expected an attack from

11921-801: The much closer eastern coast. Twenty French soldiers died in combat while 6,000 died of malaria and other diseases before the Second Franco-Hova War ended. In 1896, the Merina Kingdom was put under French protection as the Malagasy Protectorate and in 1897 the French Parliament voted to annex the island as a colony, effectively ending Merina sovereignty. Andriamanelo established the first fortified rova (royal compound) at his capital at Alasora. This fortified palace bore specific features – hadivory (dry moats), hadifetsy (defensive trenches) and vavahady (town gates protected by

12052-421: The noble class, work in salaried positions as government officials, teachers and a variety of other trades and professions. The SIRAMA national sugar company factories are located in Antankarana territory and employ many migrants, but relatively few Antankarana as their standard of living on average is high enough to be able to pursue better opportunities. The most significant urban area in the Antankarana homeland

12183-428: The north, who united together under the name Antankarana (people of the Ankarana rocks). The Sakalava warred with the nascent Antankarana kingdom in its continued effort to claim sovereignty over the territory, but the Antankarana hid themselves in natural shelters formed by the rocks and caves of Ankarana. Eventually they were forced to take refuge at Maroantsetra , a town ruled by a relative named Raholo; Andriantsirotso

12314-617: The northern coast to France and paid 560,000 gold francs to the heirs of Joseph-François Lambert. Meanwhile, in Europe, diplomats partitioning the African continent worked out an agreement whereby Britain, in order to obtain the Sultanate of Zanzibar , ceded its rights over Heligoland to the German Empire and renounced all claims to Madagascar in favor of France. The agreement proved detrimental for

12445-514: The number of cattle one gives away indicates generosity, and the number sacrificed to the ancestors is a measure of loyalty. The sacrifice of zebu is a typical element of many major rituals and celebrations ranging from Muslim holidays to life events like marriage, death and birth. The traditional martial art of Madagascar, moraingy , and large dance parties ( baly ) are very popular among the Antankarana youth, who often are drawn more to western culture than ancestral practices and beliefs. Clothing

12576-461: The oral histories as Rafohy or Rangita ) married a Hova man named Manelobe. Their oldest son, Andriamanelo (r. 1540–1575), broke this tradition by launching a largely successful war to subjugate the surrounding Vazimba communities and force them to either submit to Hova dominance and assimilate, or flee. Andriamanelo was succeeded by his son Ralambo (r. 1575–1612), whose many enduring and significant political and cultural achievements earned him

12707-400: The periphery of the region. Funerals among the Antankarana are often celebratory events. Among villagers living near the sea, it is not uncommon for the remains of a loved one to be placed in a coffin which the family carries running into the sea. At royal ceremonies a traditional dance called the rabiky is often performed. The Antankarana speak a dialect of the Malagasy language , which

12838-609: The practice and associated importance. The Sakalava society became socially stratified, like many other ethnic groups, with the start of the slavery. The Sakalava stratification system was hierarchical based on presumed purity of each stratum. In the Sakalava kingdom, the strata included the Ampanzaka , or the royal caste, and the Makoa , or the term for the descendants of African slaves. The Sakalava have been pastoralists with large zebu cattle herds, traditionally allowed to graze freely over

12969-445: The redirection of rainwater for controlled flooding of planted areas. Andrianjaka was reportedly the first Merina leader to receive Europeans around 1620 and traded slaves in exchange for guns and other firearms to aid in the pacification of rival principalities, obtaining 50 guns and three barrels of gunpowder to equip his army. Andriamanelo is traditionally credited with discovering the technique of silversmithing, iron smithing and

13100-403: The reign of Tsimiharo II or his successor Tsimiaro III (1983–current). This changed after the election of Albert Zafy (1991–96), an Antankarana noble from the village of Ambilobe . Zafy sought to reduce the powers of King Tsimiaro III, who responded by "declaring war" against the new president. This standoff came to an end with the election of Zafy's successor, Didier Ratsiraka , who returned to

13231-418: The same ancestors, and members of both groups adhere to many of the same fady , making it difficult at times to distinguish the two groups from one another. Relations between the two are amicable. In a custom unique to the Antankarana, called the tsangatsaine , two trees growing before the house of a noble family are tied together to symbolize the unity of the community. and the merger of past with present and

13362-447: The second British-Merina treaty of 1820. This treaty declared an end to the export of slaves in Madagascar under the Merina crown. However, the internal slave market still boomed after 1820 despite British efforts. It is estimated that between 6,000 to 10,000 slaves per year were exported from Antananarivo by 1820. In 1828, Ranavalona I revoked the second British-Merina treaty and expelled most foreigners from Madagascar by 1836. Due to

13493-447: The service of less powerful citizens consequently increased throughout Imerina under Ralambo's rule: nearly every village chief, as well as many common families, had one in their possession and claimed the powers and protection their communal sampy offered them. These lesser sampy were destroyed or reduced to the status of ody by the end of the reign of Ralambo's son, Andrianjaka, officially leaving only twelve truly powerful sampy (known as

13624-417: The setting of bush fires are both prohibited, as is the use of nets with holes less than 15 millimeters to prevent catching immature fish. Certain species are protected through fady that forbid hunting them, including sharks, rays and crocodiles. Many fady also exist to regulate relations between the sexes. For instance, it is taboo for a girl to wash her own brother's clothing. Conservative communities adhere to

13755-408: The south of Antananarivo with its capital at Betafo. Andrianampoinimerina reunited these provinces and added Imamo to the west, which has been described by some historians as having been incorporated into Ambodirano, and by others as separate from it; and Valalafotsy to the northwest. Together, these areas constitute the core territory rightly called Imerina, the homeland of the Merina people. Imerina

13886-627: The southeastern part of the island that the Hova had left behind as they migrated into the central highlands. Astrology, for instance, had been introduced early to the island by way of trade contacts between coastal Malagasy communities and Arab seafarers. Under Andriamanelo's son Ralambo, the sovereign became imbued with increasing power to protect the realm. This was preserved by honoring the sampy , traditional amulets made from assorted natural materials. Amulets and idols called ody had long occupied an important place among many ethnic groups of Madagascar , but these were believed to offer protection to

14017-437: The sovereign and others present at the ceremony. Afterward the sovereign would bathe in sanctified water, then sprinkle it upon attendees to purify and bless them and ensure an auspicious start to the year. Children would celebrate the fandroana by carrying lighted torches and lanterns in a nighttime processional through their villages. The zebu meat eaten over the course of the festival was primarily grilled or consumed as jaka ,

14148-432: The sovereign had successfully contracted a marriage with Ramaitsoanala, sole daughter of Vazimba King Rabiby, Andriamanelo sent her a variety of gifts including vodiondry—meat from the hindquarters of a sheep—which he believed to be the tastiest portion. The value placed on this cut of meat was reaffirmed by Ralambo who, upon discovering the edibility of zebu meat, declared the hindquarters of every slaughtered zebu throughout

14279-467: The spirit possession ceremony. Generally, the concept of history in Madagascar places a great emphasis on feeling and experiencing rather than knowing. The line of succession in Imerina used a system called fanjakana arindra ("organized government"), which was established by the Vazimba noblewomen who raised Andriamanelo, founder of Imerina. While the Vazimba had historically tended to favor rule by queens,

14410-556: The start of each year. Although the precise form of the original holiday cannot be known with certainty and its traditions have evolved over time, 18th- and 19th-century accounts provide insight into the festival as it was practiced at that time. Accounts from these centuries indicate that all family members were required to reunite in their home villages during the festival period. Estranged family members were expected to attempt to reconcile. Homes were cleaned and repaired and new housewares and clothing were purchased. The symbolism of renewal

14541-677: The start of the 16th century. Malagasy slaves were exported to Arabia, India, Réunion and Mauritius , and the Americas, primarily Brazil . After the British emerged victorious from the Napoleonic wars , they captured the French Mascarene Islands which lie east of Madagascar. These islands facilitated the export of slaves and agricultural products. Some of the first stories of Madagascar to be told in Britain were those told by Robert Drury ,

14672-476: The structures with deep symbolic and spiritual meaning. As Andrianjaka's residence, the Besakana was particularly significant: the original building was torn down and reconstructed in the same design by Andriamasinavalona around 1680, and again by Andrianampoinimerina in 1800, each of whom inhabited the building in turn as their personal residence. King Radama I likewise inhabited the building for much of his time at

14803-434: The tens of thousands. These refugees formed raiding brigands that were dealt with by imperial troops who hunted them down in 1835. Notably, the rate of escaping refugees only heightened the demand for slave labor in the Merina kingdom, further fueling campaigns of military expansion. Throughout the middle of the 19th century, continued imperial expansion and increasing control in coastal trade solidified Merina predominance over

14934-412: The thin population density of Madagascar, domestic slavery was a way to broadcast control over resources and manpower. The elite of Imerina relied heavily upon slave labor . Because of this, the Merina king Radama I had little intent to abide by the first British-Merina treaty signed in 1817. Slave ownership became increasingly common in the following decades. As the slave caste expanded, more and more of

15065-506: The throne at age 22 and was exiled to Réunion Island and later French Algeria following French colonisation of the island in 1896. Angry at the cancellation of the Lambert Charter and seeking to restore property taken from French citizens, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the First Franco-Hova War ( Hova referring to the andriana ). At the war's end, Madagascar ceded Antsiranana (Diégo Suarez) on

15196-540: The total population, that is about 2,079,000 in 2018. Their name means "people of the long valleys." They occupy the western edge of the island from Toliara in the south to the Sambirano River in the north. The Sakalava denominate a number of smaller ethnic groups that once comprised an empire, rather than an ethnic group in its own right. The origin of the word Sakalava itself is still subject to controversy, as well as its actual meaning. The most common explanation

15327-509: The traditions of circumcision and family intermarriage (such as between parent and step-child, or between half-siblings) among Merina nobles, these practices having already existed among certain other Malagasy ethnic groups. According to oral history, the institution of lengthy formal mourning periods for deceased sovereigns in Imerina may also have begun with the death of Andrianjaka. He was succeeded by his son, Andriantsitakatrandriana . Despite plenty of religious variation across Imerina and

15458-410: The unification of the Merina kingdom under Andrianampoinimerina, the social structure of the central highlands of Madagascar were distinguished by a class of petty princes and peasant masses. Andriamanelo was reportedly the first to formally establish the andriana as a caste of Merina nobles, thereby laying the foundation for a stratified and structured society. From this point forward, the term Hova

15589-450: The village also has a zomba (house reserved for royalty), it would traditionally be located here. Intermarriage across classes is common among the Antankarana, and most can claim a family relation to a member of the noble class. Historically, commoners were further sub-divided into caste-like groups called karazana ("types of people") based on their form of livelihood. The majority of Antankarana identify to varying degrees as Muslim. Once

15720-412: Was able to repel the Sakalava three years later with the support of Raholo's soldiers. Throughout this period Andriantsirotso established the foundations for the kingdom by organizing military cooperation among clans, establishing an administration, developing economic regulations and introducing customs that reinforced a hierarchical social order. According to oral history, at the point when Andriantsirotso

15851-404: Was an elder child and a younger one, the parents would designate an elder child to assume authority within the family upon their death, and that authority would be handed to the designated younger child in the event of the death of the elder child. Ralambo was the first Merina sovereign to practice polygamy, and his second wife was the first to give him a son. While his younger son by his first wife

15982-409: Was from this context in 1787 that Prince Ramboasalama, nephew of King Andrianjafy of Ambohimanga (one of the four kingdoms of Imerina) expelled his uncle and took the throne under the name Andrianampoinimerina . The new king used both diplomacy and force to reunite Imerina with the intent to bring all of Madagascar under his rule. This objective was largely completed under his son, Radama I , who

16113-409: Was historically a major economic activity. Historically the Antankarana engaged in trading with European seafarers, exchanging tortoiseshell for guns. Today, while the majority of Antankarana continue to work in these traditional sectors – especially the highly lucrative shrimp fishing business or the growing of sugarcane – many are wage laborers. More highly educated community members, particularly among

16244-415: Was historically made from woven raffia. The fibers would be combed into strands that were knotted together to form cords, which were then woven into panels. These panels were stitched together to create prayer rugs and clothing. Women and men historically wore long raffia smocks. Numerous fady protect wilderness areas, particularly including the Ankarana massif. Excessive cutting of mangrove trees for wood or

16375-406: Was particularly embodied in the traditional sexual permissiveness encouraged on the eve of the fandroana (characterized by early 19th-century British missionaries as an "orgy") and the following morning's return to rigid social order with the sovereign firmly at the helm of the kingdom. On this morning, the first day of the year, a red rooster was traditionally sacrificed and its blood used to anoint

16506-472: Was preparing to return to his own capital, a mysterious eight-year-old girl named Tsimatahodrafy arrived in Maroantsetra. She revealed herself to be a sorceress and instructed Andriantsirotso on the rituals to perform en route to ensure his safe return and the establishment of a strong kingdom, including the continuing practice of tying a mat to two tsitakonala trees planted outside the king's house to indicate

16637-419: Was shifted by his son Ralambo to Ambohidrabiby, location of the former capital of his maternal grandfather King Rabiby. Andrianjaka moved his capital from Ambohidrabiby to Ambohimanga upon ascending to the throne around 1610. The Besakana, Masoandrotsiroa and Fitomiandalana houses at the Rova of Antananarivo were preserved and maintained over the centuries by successive generations of Merina sovereigns, imbuing

16768-527: Was the first to admit and regularly engage European missionaries and diplomats in Antananarivo. The 33 year reign of Queen Ranavalona I , the widow of Radama I, was characterised by a struggle to preserve the cultural isolation of Madagascar from modernity, especially as represented by the French and British . Her son and heir, King Radama II , signed the unpopular Lambert Charter giving French entrepreneur Joseph-François Lambert exclusive rights to many of

16899-435: Was to rule, Ralambo sought to assuage the elder son by declaring that the crown could henceforth only be passed to a child born of the reigning sovereign and a princess from the elder son Andriantompokoindrindra's family line. The practice of sanctifying deceased Merina sovereigns is believed to have originated with Ralambo. Imerina was initially ruled under Andriamanelo from his mother's home village of Alasora. The capital

17030-415: Was traditionally divided into three classes: nobles, commoners and slaves. Slavery was abolished under the French colonial administration but families often retain their historic affiliations. In traditional communities, descendants of nobles live on the northern side of the village and non-nobles live in the southern part. The areas may be divided by a central clearing where the town hall is often situated; if

17161-462: Was used to refer only to the non-noble free people of the society which would later be renamed Merina by Andriamanelo's son Ralambo. The first sub-divisions of the andriana noble caste were created when Ralambo split it into four ranks. Andrianjaka was the first king to be buried on the grounds of the Rova of Antananarivo, his tomb forming the first of the Fitomiandalana (seven tombs placed in

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