Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo ( Turkish : Atatürk Orman Çiftliği ve Hayvanat Bahçesi , in short AOÇ ) is an expansive recreational farming area, which houses a zoo , several small agricultural farms, greenhouses , restaurants, a dairy farm and a brewery in Ankara , Turkey . The farm and the zoo are under the administration of the Ministry of Agriculture and Village Affairs .
169-521: The Forest Farm was established in 1925 by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , the first President of the Turkish Republic, as a private farm. After 1926, the management of the farm was offered to Spiritual Christians from Russia living in north Kars Province who were noted for animal breeding (Malakan horse, Malakan cow) but who refused repatriation to the Soviet Union. They declined to move to Ankara, because
338-704: A congress in Sivas . Those who opposed the Allies in various provinces in Turkey issued a declaration named Misak-ı Millî ("National Pact"). Atatürk was appointed as the head of the executive committee of the Congress, which gave him the legitimacy he needed for his future politics. The last election to the Ottoman parliament held in December 1919 gave a sweeping majority to candidates of
507-553: A peacekeeping force to keep stability in the region. Venizelos's rhetoric was more directed against the CUP regime than the Turks as a whole, an attitude not always shared in the Greek military: "Greece is not making war against Islam, but against the anachronistic [ Unionist ] Government, and its corrupt, ignominious, and bloody administration, with a view to the expelling it from those territories where
676-826: A regular army paid off when Ankara forces fought the Greeks in the First and Second Battle of İnönü . The Greeks emerged victorious in the Battle of Kütahya-Eskişehir and drove on Ankara. The Turks checked their advance in the Battle of Sakarya and counter-attacked in the Great Offensive , which expelled Greek forces. The war ended with the recapture of İzmir , the Chanak Crisis and another armistice in Mudanya . The Grand National Assembly in Ankara
845-561: A Muslim part of a vast Empire into a modern, democratic, and secular nation-state. This had a positive influence on human capital because from then on, what mattered at school was science and education; Islam was concentrated in mosques and religious places. Atatürk's driving goal was the complete independence of the country. He clarified his position: ...by complete independence, we mean of course complete economic, financial, juridical, military, cultural independence and freedom in all matters. Being deprived of independence in any of these
1014-466: A Turkish surname. The Turkish Parliament granted him the surname Atatürk in 1934, which means "Father of the Turks", in recognition of the role he played in building the modern Turkish Republic. He died on 10 November 1938 at Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul , at the age of 57; he was succeeded as president by his long-time prime minister İsmet İnönü , and was honored with a state funeral . In 1981,
1183-525: A civilian stripped of his command, Mustafa Kemal was at the mercy of the new inspector of Third Army (renamed from Ninth Army) Karabekir Pasha, indeed the War Ministry ordered him to arrest Kemal, an order which Karabekir refused. The Erzurum Congress was a meeting of delegates and governors from the six Eastern Vilayets. They drafted the National Pact ( Misak-ı Millî) , which envisioned new borders for
1352-499: A confidant that Enver Pasha was a dangerous figure who might lead the country to ruin. The primary concern towards Atatürk was the Turkish government's involvement with and reaction to the burning of Smyrna in 1922, which saw Muslim Turkish mobs and paramilitaries openly engaged in mass murder of Greeks and Armenians and destroy the city's Greek and Armenian quarters, killing an estimated 100,000 people. Whether these atrocities, including
1521-564: A congress was to take place in Erzurum between delegates of the Six Vilayets to decide on a response, and another congress would take place in Sivas where every Vilayet should send delegates. Sympathy and an lack of coordination from the capital gave Mustafa Kemal freedom of movement and telegraph use despite his implied anti-government tone. On 23 June, High Commissioner Admiral Calthorpe, realising
1690-662: A counter-revolution (see 31 March Incident ). Atatürk was instrumental in suppressing the revolt. In 1910, he was called to the Ottoman provinces in Albania . At that time Isa Boletini was leading Albanian uprisings in Kosovo , and there were revolts in Albania as well. In 1910, Atatürk met with Eqrem Vlora , the Albanian lord, politician, writer, and one of the delegates of the Albanian Declaration of Independence . Later, in
1859-621: A counteroffensive. Two of his divisions captured Bitlis and Muş , upsetting the calculations of the Russian Command. Following this victory, the CUP government in Constantinople proposed to establish a new army in Hejaz ( Hicaz Kuvve-i Seferiyesi ) and appoint Atatürk to its command, but he refused the proposal and this army was never established. Instead, on 7 March 1917, Atatürk was promoted from
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#17330857414052028-512: A demonstration against the courts martials trials. With all the chaotic politics in the capital and uncertainty of the severity of the incoming peace treaty, many Ottomans looked to Washington with the hope that the application of Wilsonian principles would mean Constantinople would stay Turkish, as Muslims outnumbered Christians 2:1. The United States never declared war on the Ottoman Empire, so many imperial elite believed Washington could be
2197-473: A few years later, in 1934, full universal suffrage. His government carried out a policy of Turkification , trying to create a homogeneous, unified and above all secular nation under the Turkish banner. Under Atatürk, the minorities in Turkey were ordered to speak Turkish in public, but were allowed to maintain their own languages in private and within their own communities; non-Turkish toponyms were replaced and non-Turkish families were ordered to adopt
2366-634: A fleet consisting of British, French, Italian and Greek ships deploying soldiers on the ground the next day, totaling 50,000 troops in Constantinople. The Allied Powers stated that the occupation was temporary and its purpose was to protect the monarchy , the caliphate and the minorities . Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe —the British signatory of the Mudros Armistice—stated the Triple Entente 's public position that they had no intention to dismantle
2535-571: A homegrown anti-Entente movement that overthrew a government and driven it into resistance. In December 1919, an election was held for the Ottoman parliament , with polls only open in unoccupied Anatolia and Thrace. It was boycotted by Ottoman Greeks, Ottoman Armenians and the Freedom and Accord Party , resulting in groups associated with the Turkish Nationalist Movement winning, including
2704-518: A loose separation of powers between the legislative and the executive organs of the state, whereas the separation of these two within the judiciary system was a strict one. Atatürk, then the President, occupied a dominant position in this political system. Turkish War of Independence Turkish Nationalists : [REDACTED] Ankara Government ( 1919–1920 ; 1920–1923) The Turkish War of Independence (19 May 1919 – 24 July 1923)
2873-583: A merchant Mustafa Elvan (Cantekin) called Vatan ve Hürriyet ("Motherland and Liberty"). On 20 June 1907, he was promoted to the rank of Senior Captain ( Kolağası ) and on 13 October 1907, was assigned to the headquarters of the Third Army in Manastır . He joined the Committee of Union and Progress , with membership number 322, although in later years he became known for his opposition to, and frequent criticism of,
3042-658: A national election to establish a new Turkish Parliament seated in Angora. – the " Grand National Assembly " (GNA). On 23 April 1920, the GNA opened with Atatürk as the speaker ; this act effectively created the situation of diarchy in the country. In May 1920, the power struggle between the two governments led to a death sentence in absentia for Atatürk by the Turkish courts-martial . Halide Edib (Adıvar) and Ali Fuat (Cebesoy) were also sentenced to death alongside Atatürk. On 10 August 1920,
3211-528: A neutral arbiter that could fix the empire's problems. Halide Edip (Adıvar) and her Wilsonian Principles Society led the movement that advocated for the empire to be governed by an American League of Nations Mandate (see United States during the Turkish War of Independence ). American diplomats attempted to ascertain a role they could play in the area with the Harbord and King–Crane Commissions . However, with
3380-579: A peace settlement. They added to the points passed in Sivas, calling for plebiscites to be held in West Thrace; Batum, Kars, and Ardahan, and Arab lands on whether to stay in the Empire or not. Proposals were also made to elect Kemal president of the Chamber; however, this was deferred in the certain knowledge that the British would prorogue the Chamber. The Chamber of Deputies would be forcefully dissolved for passing
3549-528: A period of time, he worked at the headquarters of the Ministry of War ( Harbiye Nezareti ) in Constantinople and continued his activities in this city until 16 May 1919. Along the established lines of the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire , the Allies (British, Italian, French and Greek forces) occupied Anatolia . The occupation of Constantinople, followed by the occupation of İzmir (the two largest Ottoman cities at
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#17330857414053718-575: A post-war settlement in the Ottoman Empire being leaked to the press as the Sykes–Picot Agreement . Russia's exit from World War I and descent into civil war was driven in part by the Ottoman closure of the Turkish straits to goods bound for Russia . A new imperative was given to the Entente powers to knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war and restart the Eastern Front . World War I would be
3887-471: A radical revolutionary group seeking to prevent a collapse of the Ottoman Empire, by the eve of World War I it decided that the solution was to implement nationalist and centralizing policies. The CUP reacted to the losses of land and the expulsion of Muslims from the Balkan Wars by turning even more nationalistic. Part of its effort to consolidate power was to proscribe and exile opposition politicians from
4056-500: A religious school, something he did reluctantly and only briefly. Later, he attended the Şemsi Efendi School (a private school with a more secular curriculum) at the direction of his father. When he was seven years old, his father died. His mother wanted him to learn a trade, but without consulting them, Atatürk took the entrance exam for the Salonica Military School ( Selanik Askeri Rüştiyesi ) in 1893. In 1896, he enrolled in
4225-717: A sister named Makbule (Atadan) survived childhood; she died in 1956. Claims and theories about Atatürk's ancestry are strikingly varied and contrasting. According to Andrew Mango, his family was Muslim, Turkish-speaking and precariously middle-class. His father Ali Rıza is thought to have been of Albanian origin by some authors; however, according to Falih Rıfkı Atay , Vamık D. Volkan , Norman Itzkowitz , Müjgân Cunbur, Numan Kartal and Hasan İzzettin Dinamo, Ali Rıza's ancestors were Turks , ultimately descending from Söke in Aydın Province of Anatolia . His mother Zübeyde
4394-683: A strength of 150,000 men; it was opposed by 20,000 Bedouins and 8,000 Turks. A short time before Italy declared war, many of the Ottoman troops in Libya were sent to the Ottoman province of Yemen Vilayet to put down the rebellion there, so the Ottoman government was caught with inadequate resources to counter the Italians in Libya. Britain, which controlled the Ottoman provinces of Egypt and Sudan , did not allow additional Ottoman troops to reach Libya through Egypt. Ottoman soldiers like Atatürk went to Libya either dressed as Arabs (risking imprisonment if noticed by
4563-707: A stronger defensive line to the north, in Ottoman Syria (in parts of the Beirut Vilayet , Damascus Vilayet , and Aleppo Vilayet ), with Turks instead of Germans in command. Following the rejection of his report, Atatürk resigned from the Seventh Army and returned to Constantinople. There, he was assigned with the task of accompanying the crown prince (and future sultan) Mehmed Vahideddin during his train trip to Austria-Hungary and Germany. While in Germany, Atatürk visited
4732-674: A successor to the CUP's Special Organization , to be used in case resistance was necessary in Anatolia. Many Ottoman officials participated in efforts to conceal from the occupying authorities details of the burgeoning independence movement spreading throughout Anatolia. Other commanders began refusing orders from the Ottoman government and the Allied powers. After Mustafa Kemal Pasha returned to Constantinople, Ali Fuat Pasha (Cebesoy) brought XX Corps under his command. He marched first to Konya and then to Ankara to organise resistance groups, such as
4901-481: A telegram to the Minister of Foreign Affairs Yusuf Kemal that described the official version of events in the city. In the telegram, he alleged the Greek and Armenian minorities had "pre-arranged plans" to "destroy İzmir". There are allegations Atatürk chose to do little about the Greek and Armenian victims of the fires caused by Muslim rioters in order to rebuild the city as Turkish-dominated İzmir . Although Atatürk
5070-569: A traditional restaurant (Merkez Lokantası, Central Restaurant) and other areas of catering around the farm. The Ankara Zoo ( Turkish : Ankara Hayvanat Bahçesi ) is a 32-hectare (79-acre) zoological garden founded in 1933 ( 39°56′45″N 32°47′28″E / 39.9459699°N 32.791099°E / 39.9459699; 32.791099 ). It houses some big cats , various birds , monkeys , apes , ungulates , snakes , and an aquarium . The zoo also breeds and sells Angora cats . The current Presidential Complex has been constructed on part of
5239-478: A well known, well respected, and well connected army commander, with much prestige coming from his status as the "Hero of Anafartalar "—for his role in the Gallipoli Campaign —and his title of "Honorary Aide-de-camp to His Majesty Sultan" gained in the last months of WWI. This choice would seem curious, as he was a nationalist and a fierce critic of the government's accommodating policy to the Entente powers. He
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5408-403: Is equivalent to the nation and country being deprived of all its independence. He led wide-ranging reforms in social, cultural, and economic aspects, establishing the new Republic's backbone of legislative, judicial, and economic structures. Though he was later idealized by some as an originator of sweeping reforms, many of his reformist ideas were already common in Ottoman intellectual circles at
5577-501: Is thought to have been of Turkish origin, and according to Şevket Süreyya Aydemir , she was of Turkic Yörük ancestry. According to some various claims, she descended from Albanians , Macedonian Torbeši , or Muslim Bulgarians . Due to the large Jewish community of Salonica in the Ottoman period, many of his Islamist opponents who were disturbed by his reforms claimed that Atatürk had Jewish Dönme ancestors. In his early years, his mother encouraged Atatürk to attend
5746-715: The Caliphate army propped up by the Allied occupation forces and had the immediate task of fighting the Armenian forces in the Eastern Front and the Greek forces advancing eastward from Smyrna (today known as İzmir ) that they had occupied in May 1919, on the Western Front . The GNA military successes against the Democratic Republic of Armenia in the autumn of 1920 and later against
5915-707: The Circassian çetes he assembled with guerilla leader Çerkes Ethem . Meanwhile, Kazım Karabekir Pasha refused to surrender his intact and powerful XV Corps in Erzurum . Evacuating from the Caucusus, puppet republics and Muslim militia groups were established in the army's wake to hamper the consolidation of the new Armenian state. Elsewhere in the country, regional nationalist resistance organizations known as Şuras –meaning "councils", not unlike soviets in revolutionary Russia– were founded, most incorperating themselves into
6084-717: The Constitution , Parliament , and sign the Treaty of Sèvres , a treaty unfavorable to Turkish interests that the " Ankara government " declared illegal. Turkish and Syrian forces defeated the French in the south , and remobilized army units went on to partition Armenia with the Bolsheviks , resulting in the Treaty of Kars (1921). The Western Front is known as the Greco-Turkish War . İsmet Pasha (İnönü) 's organization of militia into
6253-577: The Defence of National Rights movement which protested continued Allied occupation and appeasement by the Sublime Porte . Following the occupation of Constantinople, Mehmed VI Vahdettin dissolved the Chamber of Deputies which was dominated by Unionists elected back in 1914 , promising elections for the next year. Vahdettin just ascended to the throne only months earlier with the death of Mehmed V Reşad . He
6422-815: The Fifth Army during the Battle of Gallipoli . He became the front-line commander after correctly anticipating where the Allies would attack, and held his position until they retreated. Following the Battle of Gallipoli, Atatürk served in Edirne until 14 January 1916. He was then assigned to the command of the XVI Corps of the Second Army and sent to the Caucasus Campaign after the massive Russian offensive had reached key Anatolian cities. On 7 August, he rallied his troops and mounted
6591-415: The Freedom and Accord Party to remote Sinop . The Unionists brought the Ottoman Empire into World War I on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary , during which a genocidal campaign was waged against Ottoman Christians, namely Armenians , Pontic Greeks , and Assyrians . It was based on an alleged conspiracy that the three groups would rebel on the side of the Allies, so collective punishment
6760-579: The Gallipoli peninsula and, during the First Balkan War , he took part in the amphibious landing at Bulair on the coast of Thrace under Binbaşı Fethi Bey , but this offensive was repulsed during the Battle of Bulair by Georgi Todorov 's 7th Rila Infantry Division under the command of Stiliyan Kovachev 's Bulgarian Fourth Army . In June 1913, during the Second Balkan War , he took part in
6929-571: The Karaburun peninsula; to Selçuk , situated a hundred kilometres south of the city at a key location that commands the fertile Küçük Menderes River valley; and to Menemen towards the north. Guerilla warfare commenced in the countryside, as Turks began to organize themselves into irregular guerilla groups known as Kuva-yi Milliye (national forces), which were soon joined by Ottoman soldiers, bandits, and disaffected farmers. Most Kuva-yi Milliye bands were led by rogue military commanders and members of
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7098-766: The Kingdom of Italy in the Treaty of Lausanne (1912) signed ten days later, on 18 October 1912. Since 1923, historians have preferred to name this treaty as the "Treaty of Ouchy", after the Château d'Ouchy in Lausanne where it was signed, to distinguish it from the later Treaty of Lausanne (1923) signed between the Allies of World War I and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey in Ankara (at that time known as Angora). On 1 December 1912, Atatürk arrived at his new headquarters on
7267-450: The Monastir Military High School (in modern Bitola , North Macedonia ) where he excelled at mathematics. On 14 March 1899, he enrolled at the Ottoman Military Academy in the neighbourhood of Pangaltı within the Şişli district of the Ottoman capital city Constantinople (modern Istanbul ) and graduated in 1902. He later graduated from the Ottoman Military College in Constantinople on 11 January 1905. Shortly after graduation, he
7436-432: The Russian Civil War would pass through the Turkish straits and Anatolia, with 150,000 White émigrés choosing to settle in Istanbul for short or long term (see Evacuation of the Crimea ). Many provinces were simply depopulated from years of fighting, conscription, and ethnic cleansing (see Ottoman casualties of World War I ). The province of Yozgat lost 50% of its Muslim population from conscription, while according to
7605-453: The Special Organization . The Greek troops based in cosmopolitan Smyrna soon found themselves conducting counterinsurgency operations in a hostile, dominantly Muslim hinterland. Groups of Ottoman Greeks also formed contingents that cooperated with the Greek Army to combat Kuva-yi Milliye within the zone of control. A massacre of Turks at Menemen was followed up with a battle for the town of Aydın , which saw intense intercommunal violence and
7774-559: The Surname Law of 1934 ( c. 1881 – 10 November 1938), was a Turkish field marshal , revolutionary statesman, author, and the founding father of the Republic of Turkey , serving as its first president from 1923 until his death in 1938. He undertook sweeping progressive reforms , which modernized Turkey into a secular , industrializing nation. Ideologically a secularist and nationalist , his policies and socio-political theories became known as Kemalism (Atatürkism). Atatürk came to prominence for his role in securing
7943-533: The Sykes–Picot Agreement , and to facilitate the prosecution of former members of the Committee of Union and Progress and those involved in the Armenian genocide . Ottoman commanders therefore refused orders from the Allies and Ottoman government to disband their forces. In an atmosphere of turmoil, Sultan Mehmed VI dispatched well-respected general Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk) , to restore order; however, he became an enabler and leader of Turkish Nationalist resistance . In an attempt to establish control over
8112-503: The Sykes–Picot Agreement . Greece justified their territorial claims of Ottoman land not least from Greece's entrance to WWI on the Allied side but also through the Megali Idea as well as international sympathy from the suffering of Ottoman Greeks in 1914 and 1917–1918 . Privately, Greek prime minister Eleftherios Venizelos had British prime minister David Lloyd George 's backing because of his Philhellenism , and from his charisma and charming personality. Greece's participation in
8281-479: The Turkish postal service . Once a provincial town deep in Anatolia, the city was thus turned into the center of the independence movement. Atatürk wanted a "direct government by the Assembly" and visualized a representative democracy , parliamentary sovereignty , where the National Parliament would be the ultimate source of power. In the following years, he altered his stance somewhat; the country needed an immense amount of reconstruction, and "direct government by
8450-420: The collapse of the Ottoman Empire , ending the Ottoman sultanate and the Ottoman caliphate , and establishing the Republic of Turkey . This resulted in the transfer of sovereignty from the sultan-caliph to the nation , setting the stage for nationalist revolutionary reform in Republican Turkey. While World War I ended for the Ottomans with the Armistice of Mudros , the Allies continued occupying land per
8619-470: The province of Adana , including the towns of Antioch , Mersin , Tarsus , Ceyhan , Adana , Osmaniye , and İslâhiye , incorporating the area into the Occupied Enemy Territory Administration North while French forces embarked by gunboats and sent troops to the Black Sea ports of Zonguldak and Karadeniz Ereğli commanding Turkey's coal mining region. These continued seizures of land prompted Ottoman commanders to refuse demobilization and prepare for
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#17330857414058788-413: The "Association for Defence of Rights for Anatolia and Roumelia" ( Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti ), headed by Atatürk, who himself remained in Angora, now known as Ankara . The fourth (and last) term of the parliament opened in Constantinople on 12 January 1920. It was dissolved by British forces on 18 March 1920, shortly after it adopted the Misak-ı Millî ("National Pact"). Atatürk called for
8957-418: The A-RMHC. The Nationalists' obvious links to the CUP made the election especially polarizing and voter intimidation and ballot box stuffing in favor of the Kemalists were regular occurrences in rural provinces. This controversy led to many of the nationalist MPs organizing the National Salvation Group separate from Kemal's movement, which risked the nationalist movement splitting in two. Mustafa Kemal
9126-477: The Allied powers. However, his appointment was problematic for the Unionists, many being members of the liquidated committee that were surely to face trial. Years of corruption, unconstitutional acts, war profiteering, and enrichment from ethnic cleansing and genocide by the Unionists soon became basis of war crimes trials and courts martial trials held in Constantinople . While many leading Unionists were sentenced lengthy prison sentences, many made sure to escape
9295-401: The Allies did not mandate an abdication of the imperial family as a condition for peace, nor did they request the Ottoman Army to dissolve its general staff . Though the army suffered from mass desertion throughout the war which led to banditry , there was no threat of mutiny or revolutions like in Germany , Austria-Hungary , or Russia . This is despite famine and economic collapse that
9464-513: The Allies' Southern Russian intervention also earned it favors in Paris. Venizelos' demands included parts of eastern Thrace, the islands of Imbros ( Gökçeada ), Tenedos ( Bozcaada ), and parts of Western Anatolia around the city of Smyrna ( İzmir ), all of which had large Greek populations. Venizelos also advocated a large Armenian state to check a post-war Ottoman Empire. Greece wanted to incorporate Constantinople, but Entente powers did not give permission. Damat Ferid Pasha went to Paris on behalf of
9633-461: The Amasya Circular, a new congress was held there in September with delegates from all Anatolian and Thracian provinces. The Sivas Congress repeated the points of the National Pact agreed to in Erzurum, and united the various regional Defence of National Rights Associations organizations, into a united political organisation: Anatolia and Rumeli Defence of Rights Association (A-RMHC), with Mustafa Kemal as its chairman. In an effort show his movement
9802-424: The Armenians' especially as warlords hailing from those communities assisted the deportations of the Christians even though as many commanders in the Nationalist movement also had Caucasian and Balkan Muslim ancestry. With Anatolia in practical anarchy and the Ottoman army being questionably loyal in reaction to Allied land seizures, Mehmed VI established the military inspectorate system to reestablish authority over
9971-418: The Assembly" could not survive in such an environment. The revolutionaries faced challenges from the supporters of the old Ottoman regime, and also from the supporters of newer ideologies such as communism and fascism . Atatürk saw the consequences of fascist and communist doctrines in the 1920s and 1930s and rejected both. He prevented the spread into Turkey of the totalitarian party rule which held sway in
10140-408: The British authorities in Egypt) or by the very few available ferries (the Italians, who had superior naval forces, effectively controlled the sea routes to Tripoli ). However, despite all the hardships, Atatürk's forces in Libya managed to repel the Italians on a number of occasions, such as at the Battle of Tobruk on 22 December 1911. During the Battle of Derna on 16–17 January 1912, while Atatürk
10309-401: The British. On 12 January 1920, the last session of the Chamber of Deputies met in the capital. First the sultan's speech was presented, and then a telegram from Mustafa Kemal, manifesting the claim that the rightful government of Turkey was in Ankara in the name of the Committee of Representation. On 28 January the MPs from both sides of the isle secretly met to endorse the National Pact as
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#173308574140510478-405: The CUP government against Armenian Ottomans . For now, the House of Osman escaped the fates of the Hohenzollerns , Habsburgs , and Romanovs to continue ruling their empire, though at the cost of its remaining sovereignty. On 13 November 1918, a French brigade entered Constantinople to begin a de facto occupation of the Ottoman capital and its immediate dependencies. This was followed by
10647-491: The Caucasus, Britain established a presence in Menshevik Georgia and the Lori and Aras valleys as peace-keepers . On 14 November, joint Franco-Greek occupation was established in the town of Uzunköprü in eastern Thrace as well as the railway axis until the train station of Hadımköy on the outskirts of Constantinople. On 1 December, British troops based in Syria occupied Kilis , Marash , Urfa and Birecik . Beginning in December, French troops began successive seizures of
10816-423: The Chamber of Deputies or to become a British or American mandate. By and large, the assembly was unsuccessful in its goals, and the Ottoman government did not develop a strategy to navigate the crises the empire was engulfed in. Ottoman bureaucrats, military, and bourgeoisie trusted the Allies to bring peace, and thought the terms offered at Mudros were considerably more lenient than they actually were. Pushback
10985-505: The Commander of the Ottoman forces in Derna. He managed to defend and retain the city and its surrounding region until the end of the Italo-Turkish War on 18 October 1912. Atatürk, Enver Bey , Fethi Bey , and the other Ottoman military commanders in Libya had to return to Ottoman Europe following the outbreak of the Balkan Wars on 8 October 1912. Having lost the war, the Ottoman government had to surrender Tripolitania , Fezzan , and Cyrenaica (three provinces forming present-day Libya) to
11154-404: The Empire. The Ottoman government was not doing all that it could to suppress the Nationalists. Mustafa Kemal manufactured a crisis to pressure the Istanbul government to pick a side by deploying Kuva-yi Milliye towards İzmit . The British, concerned about the security of the Bosporus Strait , demanded Ali Rıza Pasha to reassert control over the area, to which he responded with his resignation to
11323-400: The First World War. Ethnic conflict restarted in Anatolia; government officials responsible for resettling Christian refugees often assisted Muslim refugees in these disputes, prompting European powers to continue bringing Ottoman territory under their control. Of the 800,000 Ottoman Christian refugees, approximately over half returned to their homes by 1920. Meanwhile 1.4 million refugees from
11492-442: The GNA, refused any proposal that would compromise Turkish sovereignty, such as the control of Turkish finances, the Capitulations , the Straits and other issues. Although the conference paused on 4 February, it continued after 23 April mainly focusing on the economic issues. On 24 July 1923, the Treaty of Lausanne was signed by the Powers with the GNA, thus recognising the latter as the government of Turkey. On 29 October 1923,
11661-490: The German lines on the Western Front and concluded that the Central Powers would soon lose the war. He did not hesitate to openly express this opinion to Kaiser Wilhelm II and his high-ranking generals in person. During the return trip, he briefly stayed in Karlsbad and Vienna for medical treatment between 30 May and 28 July 1918. When Mehmed VI became the new Sultan of the Ottoman Empire in July 1918, he called Atatürk to Constantinople, and after several meetings in
11830-428: The Greeks were made possible by a steady supply of gold and armaments to the Kemalists from the Russian Bolshevik government from the autumn of 1920 onwards. After a series of battles during the Greco-Turkish War , the Greek army advanced as far as the Sakarya River , just eighty kilometers west of Ankara. On 5 August 1921, Atatürk was promoted to commander in chief of the forces by the GNA. The ensuing Battle of
11999-474: The Italian delegation walking out of the peace talks. On 30 April, Italy responded to the possible idea of Greek incorporation of Western Anatolia by sending a warship to Smyrna as a show of force against the Greek campaign. A large Italian force also landed in Antalya . Faced with Italian annexation of parts of Asia Minor with a significant ethnic Greek population, Venizelos secured Allied permission for Greek troops to land in Smyrna per Article VII, ostensibly as
12168-645: The Mıntıka Palace Hotel. British troops were present in Samsun, and he initially maintained cordial contact. He had assured Damat Ferid about the army's loyalty towards the new government in Constantinople. However, behind the government's back, Kemal made the people of Samsun aware of the Greek and Italian landings, staged discreet mass meetings, made fast connections via telegraph with the army units in Anatolia, and began to form links with various Nationalist groups. He sent telegrams of protest to foreign embassies and
12337-558: The National Pact anyway. The National Pact solidified Nationalist interests, which were in conflict with the Allied plans. From February to April, leaders of Britain, France, and Italy met in London to discuss the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and the crisis in Anatolia. The British began to sense that the elected Ottoman government was under Kemalist influence and if left unchecked, the Entente could once again find themselves at war with
12506-493: The Ottoman Grand Vizier Damat Ferid Pasha signed the Treaty of Sèvres , finalizing plans for the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire , including the regions that Turkish nationals viewed as their heartland. Atatürk insisted on the country's complete independence and the safeguarding of interests of the Turkish majority on "Turkish soil". He persuaded the GNA to gather a National Army. The GNA army faced
12675-679: The Ottoman Army forces commanded by Kaymakam Enver Bey that recovered Dimetoka and Edirne (Adrianople, the capital city of the Ottoman Empire between 1365 and 1453, thus of utmost historic importance for the Turks) together with most of eastern Thrace from the Bulgarians. In 1913, he was appointed the Ottoman military attaché to all Balkan states (his office was in Sofia , Bulgaria) and promoted to
12844-525: The Ottoman Empire and under Allied occupation, with some "imperialists" still loyal to the Ottoman Sultanate-Caliphate, and others wishing for independence or Allied protection under a League of Nations mandate . Sizable Greek and Armenian minorities remained within its borders, and most of these communities no longer wished to remain under the Empire. On 30 October 1918, the Armistice of Mudros
13013-556: The Ottoman Empire by applying principles of national self-determination per Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points and the abolition of the capitulations . The Erzurum Congress concluded with a circular that was effectively a declaration of independence: All regions within Ottoman borders upon the signing of the Mudros Armistice were indivisible from the Ottoman state –Greek and Armenian claims on Thrace and Anatolia were moot– and assistance from any country not coveting Ottoman territory
13182-548: The Ottoman Empire hoping to minimize territorial losses using Fourteen Points rhetoric, wishing for a return to status quo ante bellum , on the basis that every province of the Empire holds Muslim majorities. This plea was met with ridicule. At the Paris Peace Conference, competing claims over Western Anatolia by Greek and Italian delegations led Greece to land the flagship of the Greek Navy at Smyrna, resulting in
13351-534: The Ottoman Empire. As a special body of the Paris Conference, "The Inter-Allied Commission on Mandates in Turkey", was established to pursue the secret treaties they had signed between 1915 and 1917. Italy sought control over the southern part of Anatolia under the Agreement of St.-Jean-de-Maurienne . France expected to exercise control over Hatay , Lebanon , Syria , and a portion of southeastern Anatolia based on
13520-569: The Ottoman Turkish victory at the Battle of Gallipoli (1915) during World War I . During this time, the Ottoman Empire perpetrated genocides against its Greek , Armenian and Assyrian subjects ; while never involved, Atatürk's role in their aftermath was the subject of discussion. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire after World War I, he led the Turkish National Movement , which resisted mainland Turkey's partition among
13689-546: The Ottoman government or place it under military occupation by "occupying Constantinople". However, dismantling the government and partitioning the Ottoman Empire among the Allied nations had been an objective of the Entente since the start of WWI. A wave of seizures took place in the rest of the country in the following months. Citing Article VII, British forces demanded that Turkish troops evacuate Mosul , claiming that Christian civilians in Mosul and Zakho were killed en masse. In
13858-451: The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed . Since then, Republic Day has been celebrated as a national holiday on that date. With the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, efforts to modernise the country started. The new government analyzed the institutions and constitutions of Western states such as France, Sweden, Italy, and Switzerland and adapted them to the needs and characteristics of
14027-500: The Sakarya was fought from 23 August–13 September 1921 and ended with the defeat of the Greeks. After this victory, Atatürk was given the rank of Mareşal and the title of Gazi by the Grand National Assembly on 19 September 1921. The Allies, ignoring the extent of Atatürk's successes, hoped to impose a modified version of the Treaty of Sèvres as a peace settlement on Angora, but the proposal
14196-511: The Seventh Army to withdraw to the north in order to prevent the British from conducting a short envelopment to the Jordan River . The Seventh Army retired towards the Jordan River but was destroyed by British aerial bombardment during its retreat from Nablus on 21 September 1918. Nevertheless, Atatürk managed to form a defence line to the north of Aleppo . According to Lord Kinross , Atatürk
14365-518: The Six Arrows. These fundamentals were not new in world politics or, indeed, among the elite of Turkey. What made them unique was that these interrelated fundamentals were explicitly formulated for Turkey's needs. A good example is the definition and application of secularism; the Kemalist secular state significantly differed from predominantly Christian states. Atatürk's private journal entries dated before
14534-416: The Soviet Union, Germany, and Italy. Some perceived his opposition and silencing of these ideologies as a means of eliminating competition; others believed it was necessary to protect the young Turkish state from succumbing to the instability of new ideologies and competing factions. Under Atatürk, the arrest process known as the 1927 Detentions ( 1927 Tevkifatı ) was launched, and a widespread arrest policy
14703-547: The Turkish nation. Highlighting the public's lack of knowledge regarding Atatürk's intentions, the public cheered: "We are returning to the days of the first caliphs ." Atatürk placed Fevzi Çakmak , Kâzım Özalp , and İsmet İnönü in political positions where they could institute his reforms . He capitalized on his reputation as an efficient military leader and spent the following years, up until his death in 1938, instituting political, economic, and social reforms. In doing so, he transformed Turkish society from perceiving itself as
14872-476: The War Ministry about British reinforcements in the area and about British aid to Greek brigand gangs. After a week in Samsun, Kemal and his staff moved to Havza . It was there that he first showed the flag of the resistance. Mustafa Kemal wrote in his memoir that he needed nationwide support to justify armed resistance against the Allied occupation. His credentials and the importance of his position were not enough to inspire everyone. While officially occupied with
15041-661: The autumn of 1910, he was among the Ottoman military observers who attended the Picardie army manoeuvres in France, and in 1911, served at the Ministry of War ( Harbiye Nezareti ) in Constantinople for a short time. In 1911, he volunteered to fight in the Italo-Turkish War in the Ottoman Tripolitania Vilayet (present-day Libya ). He served mainly in the areas near Derna and Tobruk . The invading Italian army had
15210-413: The basis that this was against the armistice that he had signed and was assigned to another position on 5 August 1919. The movement of British units alarmed the population of the region and convinced them that Mustafa Kemal was right. By early July, Mustafa Kemal Pasha received telegrams from the sultan and Calthorpe, asking him and Refet to cease his activities in Anatolia and return to the capital. Kemal
15379-617: The centennial of Atatürk's birth, his memory was honoured by the United Nations and UNESCO , which declared it The Atatürk Year in the World and adopted the Resolution on the Atatürk Centennial , describing him as "the leader of the first struggle given against colonialism and imperialism " and a "remarkable promoter of the sense of understanding between peoples and durable peace between
15548-518: The civilians in Antep in case of a defensive conflict against the invading Allies. Atatürk's last active service in the Ottoman Army was organizing the return of the Ottoman troops left behind to the south of the defensive line. In early November 1918, the Yıldırım Army Group was officially dissolved, and Atatürk returned to an occupied Constantinople , the Ottoman capital, on 13 November 1918. For
15717-696: The collapse of Woodrow Wilson 's health, the United States diplomatically withdrew from the Middle East to focus on Europe, leaving the Entente powers to construct a post-Ottoman order . The Entente would have arrived at Constantinople to discover an administration attempting to deal with decades of accumulated refugee crisis. The new government issued a proclamation allowing for deportees to return to their homes , but many Greeks and Armenians found their old homes occupied by desperate Rumelian and Caucasian Muslim refugees which were settled in their properties during
15886-798: The command of the XVI Corps to the overall command of the Second Army, although the Czar's armies were soon withdrawn when the Russian Revolution erupted. In July 1917, he was appointed to the command of the Seventh Army , replacing Fevzi Pasha on 7 August 1917, who was under the command of the German general Erich von Falkenhayn 's Yildirim Army Group (after the British forces of General Edmund Allenby captured Jerusalem in December 1917, Erich von Falkenhayn
16055-469: The country before Allied occupation or to regions that the government now had minimal control over; thus most were sentenced in absentia . The Allies encouragement of the proceedings and the use of British Malta as their holding ground made the trials unpopular. The partisan nature of the trials was not lost on observers either. The hanging of the Kaymakam of Boğazlıyan district Mehmed Kemal resulted in
16224-476: The disarming of the army, he met with various contacts in order to build his movement's momentum. He met with Rauf Pasha , Karabekir Pasha, Ali Fuat Pasha , and Refet Pasha and issued the Amasya Circular (22 June 1919). Ottoman provincial authorities were notified via telegraph that the unity and independence of the nation was at risk, and that the government in Constantinople was compromised. To remedy this,
16393-555: The election as per the Amasya Protocol to keep unity between the " Istanbul government " and " Ankara government ", he was wrong to think the election could bring him any legitimacy. The Ottoman parliament was under the de facto control of the British battalion stationed at Constantinople and any decisions by the parliament had to have the signatures of both Ali Rıza Pasha and the battalion's commanding officer. The only laws that passed were those acceptable to, or specifically ordered by
16562-414: The environment not looking conducive for an election, Sultan Mehmed VI called for an Sultanate Council ( Şûrâ-yı Saltanat ), so the government could be consulted by representatives of civil society how the Ottoman Empire should deal with its present predicaments. On 26 May 1919, 131 representatives of Ottoman civil society gathered in the capital as a faux parliament. Discussion focused on a new election for
16731-462: The establishment of the republic in 1923 show that he believed in the importance of the sovereignty of the people. In forging the new republic, the Turkish revolutionaries turned their back on the perceived corruption and decadence of cosmopolitan Constantinople and its Ottoman heritage. For instance, they made Ankara (as Angora has been known in English since 1930), the country's new capital and reformed
16900-473: The final 'â' softens the 'l' the pronunciation closely approximates that of the Arabic 'Kemal'. However, Atatürk returned to the old spelling of Kemal from May 1937 and onwards. To make a soft transition, he avoided using the name as much as he could, either by not using it at all or by signing documents as 'K. Atatürk'. An official explanation was never given, but it is widely agreed that the issue with Atatürk's name
17069-431: The fire, was part of the genocides of Asia Minor's Christian minorities that the Turkish army and government carried out during WWI is unclear, responsibility remains a contentious debate and it is unclear if the Turks entered the city with these intentions. Many Turkish apologists argue that the regular Turkish Army did not play a role in these events. At the time, Atatürk was commander of the Turkish armed forces, and sent
17238-534: The following days. Atatürk twice asked Dimitrina's parents for their permission to marry her (the second time was in 1915, during World War I ) and was twice refused, which left him with a lifelong sadness. In 1914, the Ottoman Empire entered the European and Middle Eastern theatres of World War I allied with the Central Powers . Atatürk was given the task of organizing and commanding the 19th Division attached to
17407-687: The following year. As the president of the newly formed Turkish Republic, Atatürk initiated a rigorous program of political, economic, and cultural reforms with the ultimate aim of building a republican and secular nation-state. He made primary education free and compulsory, opening thousands of new schools all over the country. He also introduced the Latin-based Turkish alphabet , replacing the old Ottoman Turkish alphabet . Turkish women received equal civil and political rights during Atatürk's presidency. In particular, women were given voting rights in local elections by Act no. 1580 on 3 April 1930 and
17576-514: The genocide and other ethnic cleansing during World War I. The Christian presence in Anatolia was largely destroyed; Muslims went from 80% to 98% of the population. Following the chaotic politics of the Second Constitutional Era , the Ottoman Empire came under the control of the Committee of Union and Progress in a coup in 1913, and then further consolidated its control after the assassination of Mahmud Shevket Pasha . Founded as
17745-464: The government in actuality. In 1920, before the Turkish Parliament, Atatürk called the genocides a "shameful act" and did not publicly deny them at that time. Atatürk's relations with Enver Pasha , a key perpetrator of the genocides, has also been controversial but poorly understood. While the two men may have been close at times, Atatürk held a personal dislike of Enver Pasha; he once said to
17914-479: The government in northwestern Anatolia and Kurds in southeastern Anatolia were engaged in blood feuds that intensified during the war and were hesitant to pledge allegiance to the Defence of Rights movement, and only would if officials could facilitate truces. Various Muhacir groups were suspicious of the continued Unionist ideology in the Defence of Rights movement, and the potential for themselves to meet fates 'like
18083-399: The government's official news agency Anadolu Agency gave the following explanation: According to our intelligence, the name 'Kamâl' that Atatürk bears is not an Arabic word, nor does it have the meaning by the Arabic word kemal ['maturity', 'perfection']. Atatürk's given name, which is being retained, is 'Kamâl', the Turkish meaning of which is army and fortress. As the circumflex accent on
18252-576: The governor of Van , almost 95% of its prewar residents were dead or internally displaced . Administration in much of the Anatolian and Thracian countryside would soon all but collapse by 1919. Army deserters who turned to banditry essentially controlled fiefdoms with tacit approval from bureaucrats and local elites. An amnesty issued in late 1918 saw these bandits strengthen their positions and fight amongst each other instead of returning to civilian life. Albanian and Circassian muhacirs resettled by
18421-458: The major fronts crumbling, Unionist Grand Vizier Talât Pasha intended to sign an armistice, and resigned on 8 October 1918 so that a new government would receive less harsh armistice terms. The Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918, ending World War I for the Ottoman Empire. Three days later, the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)—which governed the Ottoman Empire as a one-party state since 1913 —held its last congress, where it
18590-508: The majority of the population consists of Greeks." It was decided by the Triple Entente that Greece would control a zone around Smyrna and Ayvalık in western Asia Minor. Most historians mark the Greek landing at Smyrna on 15 May 1919 as the start date of the Turkish War of Independence as well as the start of the " Kuva-yi Milliye Phase". The occupation ceremony from the outset was tense from nationalist fervor, with Ottoman Greeks greeting
18759-615: The months July and August 1918, reassigned him to the command of the Seventh Army in Palestine. Atatürk arrived in Aleppo on 26 August 1918, then continued south to his headquarters in Nablus . The Seventh Army was holding the central sector of the front lines. On 19 September, at the beginning of the Battle of Megiddo , the Eighth Army was holding the coastal flank but fell apart and Liman Pasha ordered
18928-519: The most zealous believed they must live close to Mount Ararat for the Second Coming of Christ. In 1937, Atatürk donated the farm to the Turkish state. At the farm is an exact replica of the house where Atatürk was born circa 1881 in Selânik . Visitors to the farm can sample the products of the farm such as old-fashioned beer, fresh dairy products, ice cream, and meat rolls and kebabs made on charcoal, at
19097-402: The nail in the coffin of Ottomanism , an imperialist and multicultural nationalism. Mistreatment of non-Turk groups after 1913, and the general context of great socio-political upheaval that occurred in the aftermath of World War I , meant many minorities now wished to divorce their future from imperialism to form futures of their own by separating into (often republican ) nation-states . In
19266-569: The name himself as a tribute to the nationalist poet Namık Kemal . According to Alkan, Atatürk seems to have embraced the name Kemal during his army years. After receiving the surname Atatürk on his first ID card in 1934, his name appeared as Kemal Atatürk, while the given name Mustafa had disappeared altogether. In February 1935, Atatürk began to use the Old Turkic name Kamâl. According to Tarama Dergisi (1934), kamal meant "fortification", "fortress", "army", and "shield". On 4 February 1935,
19435-503: The nations of the world and that he worked all his life for the development of harmony and cooperation between peoples without distinction". Atatürk was also credited for his peace-in-the-world oriented foreign policy and friendship with neighboring countries such as Iran, Yugoslavia, Iraq, and Greece, as well as the creation of the Balkan Pact that resisted the expansionist aggressions of Fascist Italy and Tsarist Bulgaria . Atatürk
19604-721: The outbreak of hostilities, all British troops stationed in the Black Sea coast and Kütahya were evacuated. Damat Ferid Pasha resigned, and the sultan replaced him with a general with nationalist credentials: Ali Rıza Pasha . On 16 October 1919, Ali Rıza and the Nationalists held negotiations in Amasya. They agreed in the Amasya Protocol that an election would be called for the Ottoman Parliament to establish national unity by upholding
19773-461: The partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, and the abolition of the sultanate , the Ottoman era came to an end, and with Atatürk's reforms , the Turks created the secular nation of Turkey. Turkey's demographics were significantly impacted by the Armenian genocide and deportations of Greek-speaking, Orthodox Christian Rum people . The Turkish Nationalist Movement carried out massacres and deportations to eliminate Christian populations—a continuation of
19942-524: The party came from all parts of Ottoman media . A general amnesty was soon issued, allowing the exiled and imprisoned dissidents persecuted by the CUP to return to Constantinople. Vahdettin invited the pro- Palace politician Damat Ferid Pasha to form a government, whose members quickly set out to purge the Unionists from the Ottoman government . Ferid Pasha hoped that his Anglophilia and an attitude of appeasement would induce less harsh peace terms from
20111-635: The policies pursued by the CUP leadership. On 22 June 1908, he was appointed the Inspector of the Ottoman Railways in Eastern Rumelia ( Doğu Rumeli Bölgesi Demiryolları Müfettişi ). In July 1908, he played a role in the Young Turk Revolution which seized power from Sultan Abdülhamid II and restored the constitutional monarchy . He was proposing depoliticization in the army, a proposal which
20280-404: The post-armistice War Ministry, a powerful tool that would help him accomplish his secret goal: to lead a nationalist movement to safeguard Turkish interests against the Allied powers and a collaborative Ottoman government. The day before his departure to Samsun on the remote Black Sea coast, Kemal had one last audience with Sultan Vahdettin, where he affirmed his loyalty to the sultan-caliph. It
20449-417: The power vacuum in Anatolia, the Allies agreed to launch a Greek peacekeeping force and occupy Smyrna ( İzmir ), inflaming sectarian tensions and beginning the Turkish War of Independence. A nationalist counter government led by Mustafa Kemal was established in Ankara when it became clear the Ottoman government was appeasing the Allies. The Allies pressured the Ottoman " Istanbul government " to suspend
20618-582: The rank of Kaymakam ( Lieutenant Colonel / Colonel ) on 1 March 1914. While in Bulgaria, he met with Dimitrina Kovacheva, the daughter of Bulgarian general Stiliyan Kovachev (against whose forces he had fought during the Balkan Wars ), who had recently completed her education in Switzerland , during a New Year's Eve ball in Sofia and fell in love with her. The two danced at the ball and started to secretly date in
20787-422: The razing of the city. What was supposed to be a peacekeeping mission of Western Anatolia instead inflamed ethnic tensions and became a counterinsurgency . The reaction of Greek landing at Smyrna and continued Allied seizures of land served to destabilize Turkish civil society. Damat Ferid Pasha resigned as Grand Vizier, but the sultan reappointed him anyways. With the Chamber of Deputies of deputies dissolved, and
20956-472: The remaining empire. Encouraged by Karabekir and Edmund Allenby , he assigned Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk) as the inspector of the Ninth Army Troops Inspectorate –based in Erzurum – to restore order to Ottoman military units and to improve internal security on 30 April 1919, with his first assignment to suppress a rebellion by Greek rebels around the city of Samsun . Mustafa Kemal was
21125-536: The resolutions made in the Sivas Congress, including the National Pact. By October 1919, the Ottoman government only held de facto control over Constantinople; the rest of the Ottoman Empire was loyal to Kemal's movement to resist a partition of Anatolia and Thrace. Within a few months Mustafa Kemal went from General Inspector of the Ninth Army to a renegade military commander discharged for insubordination to leading
21294-403: The resumption of war. The British similarly asked Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk) to turn over the port of Alexandretta ( İskenderun ), which he reluctantly did, following which he was recalled to Constantinople. He made sure to distribute weapons to the population to prevent them from falling into the hands of Allied forces. Some of these weapons were smuggled to the east by members of Karakol ,
21463-615: The rump radical faction which formed the Renewal Party (both parties would be banned in May 1919 for being successors of the CUP). All these reasons allowed him to be the most legitimate nationalist for the sultan to placate. In this new political climate, he sought to capitalize on his war exploits to attain a better job, indeed several times he unsuccessfully lobbied for his inclusion in cabinet as War Minister . His new assignment gave him effective plenipotentiary powers over all of Anatolia which
21632-626: The senior leadership of the Turkish National Movement and former members of the CUP. 150 arrested Turkish politicians accused of war crimes were interned in Malta and became known as the Malta exiles . Mustafa Kemal was ready for this move. He warned all the Nationalist organisations that there would be misleading declarations from the capital. He warned that the only way to counter Allied movements
21801-744: The significance of Mustafa Kemal's discreet activities in Anatolia, sent a report about the Pasha to the Foreign Office . His remarks were downplayed by George Kidson of the Eastern Department. Captain Hurst of the British occupation force in Samsun warned Admiral Calthorpe one more time, but Hurst's units were replaced with the Brigade of Gurkhas . When the British landed in Alexandretta , Admiral Calthorpe resigned on
21970-636: The soldiers with an ecstatic welcome, and Ottoman Muslims protesting the landing. A miscommunication in Greek high command led to an Evzone column marching by the municipal Turkish barracks. The nationalist journalist Hasan Tahsin fired the "first bullet" at the Greek standard bearer at the head of the troops, turning the city into a warzone. Süleyman Fethi Bey was murdered by bayonet for refusing to shout "Zito Venizelos " (meaning "long live Venizelos"), and 300–400 unarmed Turkish soldiers and civilians and 100 Greek soldiers and civilians were killed or wounded. Greek troops moved from Smyrna outwards to towns on
22139-452: The sultan. As they were negotiating the partition of the Ottoman Empire , the Allies were growing increasingly concerned about the Turkish National Movement. To this end, the Allied occupational authorities in Istanbul began to plan a raid to arrest nationalist politicians and journalists along with occupying military and police installations and government buildings. On 16 March 1920, the coup
22308-636: The summer months of 1918, the leaders of the Central Powers realized that the Great War was lost, including the Ottomans'. Almost simultaneously the Palestinian Front and then the Macedonian Front collapsed . The sudden decision by Bulgaria to sign an armistice cut communications from Constantinople ( İstanbul ) to Vienna and Berlin , and opened the undefended Ottoman capital to Entente attack. With
22477-447: The territory of the forest farm, and this issue has caused substantial legal and political disputes in Turkey. According to recent reports, Turkey's Public Housing Development Administration ( TOKİ ) is planning to sell some of the farm lands in an auction. Mustafa Kemal Atat%C3%BCrk Reforms Kemalism Mustafa Kemal Atatürk , also known as Mustafa Kemal Pasha until 1921, and Ghazi Mustafa Kemal from 1921 until
22646-407: The time) sparked the establishment of the Turkish National Movement and the Turkish War of Independence. At the time of the late Ottoman genocides reportedly committed by the CUP and the declining Ottoman Empire, but now controversial , Atatürk was a member of the CUP, and to that extent, a Young Turk , but so had many Arabs , Albanians , Jews , and initially, Armenians and Greeks , as it
22815-506: The turn of the 20th century and were expressed more openly after the Young Turk Revolution . Atatürk created a banner to mark the changes between the old Ottoman and the new republican rule. Each change was symbolized as an arrow in this banner. This defining ideology of the Republic of Turkey is referred to as the "Six Arrows", or Kemalism . Kemalism is based on Atatürk's conception of realism and pragmatism . The fundamentals of nationalism, populism, and statism were all defined under
22984-411: The vague right to occupy "in case of disorder" any territory if there were a threat to security. The clause relating to the occupation of the straits was meant to secure a Southern Russian intervention force , while the rest of the article was used to allow for Allied controlled peace-keeping forces. There was also a hope to follow through punishing local actors that carried out exterminatory orders from
23153-478: The victorious Allied powers . Establishing a provisional government in the present-day Turkish capital Ankara (known in English at the time as Angora), he defeated the forces sent by the Allies, thus emerging victorious from what was later referred to as the Turkish War of Independence . He subsequently proceeded to abolish the sultanate in 1922 and proclaimed the foundation of the Turkish Republic in its place
23322-417: The war criminals were also invited to the government of the new Turkish republic. On 30 April 1919, Fahri Yaver-i Hazret-i Şehriyari ("Honorary Aide-de-camp to His Majesty Sultan") Mirliva Atatürk was assigned as the inspector of the Ninth Army Troops Inspectorate to reorganize what remained of the Ottoman military units and to improve internal security. On 19 May 1919, he reached Samsun . His first goal
23491-440: Was a series of military campaigns and a revolution waged by the Turkish National Movement , after the Ottoman Empire was occupied and partitioned following its defeat in World War I . The conflict was between the Turkish Nationalists against Allied and separatist forces over the application of Wilsonian principles , especially self-determination , in post-World War I Anatolia and eastern Thrace . The revolution concluded
23660-416: Was also an early member of the CUP. However Kemal Pasha did not associate himself with the fanatical faction of the CUP, many knew that he frequently clashed with the radicals of the Central Committee like Enver. He was therefore sidelined to the periphery of power throughout the Great War; after the CUP's dissolution he vocally aligned himself with moderates that formed the Liberal People's Party instead of
23829-441: Was applied. A similar suspicion and suppression from the Turkish nationalist government was directed towards the Arab and Kurdish populations, leading to localized rebellions. The Entente powers reacted to these developments by charging the CUP leaders, commonly known as the Three Pashas , with " crimes against humanity " and threatened accountability. They also had imperialist ambitions on Ottoman territory, with correspondence over
23998-432: Was arrested by the police for his anti-monarchist activities. Following confinement for several months he was released only with the support of Rıza Pasha, his former school director. After his release, Atatürk was assigned to the Fifth Army based in Damascus as a Staff Captain in the company of Ali Fuat (Cebesoy) and Lütfi Müfit (Özdeş). He joined a small secret revolutionary society of reformist officers led by
24167-507: Was assaulting the Italian-controlled fortress of Kasr-ı Harun, two Italian planes dropped bombs on the Ottoman forces; a limestone splinter from a damaged building's rubble struck Atatürk's left eye, causing permanent tissue damage, but not total loss of sight. He received medical treatment for nearly a month; he attempted to leave the Red Crescent 's health facilities after only two weeks, but when his eye's situation worsened, he had to return and resume treatment. On 6 March 1912, Atatürk became
24336-438: Was based on a general ballot. Deputies at the GNA served as the voice of Turkish society by expressing its political views and preferences. It had the right to select and control both the government and the Prime Minister. Initially, it also acted as a legislative power, controlling the executive branch and, if necessary, served as an organ of scrutiny under the Turkish Constitution of 1921 . The Turkish Constitution of 1924 set
24505-449: Was born Mustafa . His second name Kemal (meaning "perfection" or "maturity" in Arabic ) was given to him by his mathematics teacher, Captain Üsküplü Mustafa Efendi. According to Afet İnan , his teacher gave this name "in admiration of [Atatürk's] capability and maturity." According to other sources, his teacher wanted to distinguish Atatürk from another student who was also named Mustafa. Andrew Mango suggests that he may have chosen
24674-478: Was brought on by the extreme levels of mobilization , destruction from the war, disease , and mass murder since 1914. Due to the Turkish nationalist policies pursued by the CUP against Ottoman Christians by 1918 the Ottoman Empire held control over a mostly homogeneous land of Muslims from eastern Thrace to the Persian border. These included mostly Turks , as well as Kurds , Circassians , and Muhacir groups from Rumeli . Most Muslim Arabs were now outside of
24843-443: Was carried out; several Royal Navy warships were anchored in the Galata Bridge to support British forces, including the Indian Army , while they carried out the arrests and occupied several government buildings in the early hours of the morning. An Indian Army operation, the Şehzadebaşı raid , resulted in 5 Ottoman soldiers from the 10th Infantry Division being killed when troops raided their barracks. Among those arrested were
25012-414: Was critical of the Armenian genocide and Kemalists had pledged to prosecute those involved with the genocide, on March 31, 1923, a general amnesty was declared for those who had been convicted of court-martial and by the municipal courts after the defeat of the Ottoman forces. Turkey also refused to deliver those involved with the crimes to the Allies, arguing that it would violate Turkish sovereignty. Some of
25181-416: Was decided the party would be dissolved. Talât, Enver Pasha , Cemal Pasha , and five other high-ranking members of the CUP escaped the Ottoman Empire on a German torpedo boat later that night, plunging the country into a power vacuum. The armistice was signed because the Ottoman Empire had been defeated in important fronts, but the military was intact and retreated in good order. Unlike other Central Powers,
25350-406: Was disgusted with the policies of the CUP, and wished to be a more assertive sovereign than his diseased half brother. Greek and Armenian Ottomans declared the termination of their relationship with the Ottoman Empire through their respective patriarchates , and refused to partake in any future election. With the collapse of the CUP and its censorship regime, an outpouring of condemnation against
25519-415: Was disliked by the leaders of the CUP. As a result, he was sent away to Tripolitania Vilayet (present Libya , then an Ottoman territory) under the pretext of suppressing a tribal rebellion towards the end of 1908. According to Mikush however, he volunteered for this mission. He suppressed the revolt and returned to Constantinople in January 1909. In April 1909 in Constantinople, a group of soldiers began
25688-441: Was elected an MP from Erzurum, but he expected the Allies neither to accept the Harbord report nor to respect his parliamentary immunity if he went to the Ottoman capital, hence he remained in Anatolia. Mustafa Kemal and the Committee of Representation moved from Sivas to Ankara so that he could keep in touch with as many deputies as possible as they traveled to Constantinople to attend the parliament. Though Ali Rıza Pasha called
25857-399: Was in Erzincan and did not want to return to Constantinople, concerned that the foreign authorities might have designs for him beyond the sultan's plans. Before resigning from his position, he dispatched a circular to all nationalist organizations and military commanders to not disband or surrender unless for the latter if they could be replaced by cooperative nationalist commanders. Now only
26026-412: Was in September 1919, when Atatürk met with the United States Army General James Harbord , the leader of the Harbord Commission into the genocides, in Sivas . Harbord would later recall that Atatürk told him of his disapproval of the Armenian genocide, and that he had allegedly stated that "the massacre and deportation of Armenians was the work of a small committee who had seized power", rather than by
26195-421: Was in fact a new and unifying movement, the delegates had to swear an oath to discontinue their relations with the CUP and to never revive the party (despite most present in Sivas being previous members). It was also decided there that the Ottoman Empire should not be a League of Nations mandate under the United States, especially after the U.S Senate failed to ratify American membership in the League. Momentum
26364-402: Was in this meeting that they were informed of the botched occupation ceremony of Smyrna (İzmir) by the Greeks. He and his carefully selected staff left Constantinople aboard the old steamer SS Bandırma on the evening of 16 May 1919. On 19 January 1919, the Paris Peace Conference was first held, at which Allied nations set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers , including
26533-468: Was linked to the Turkish language reform . Atatürk was born either in the Ahmet Subaşı neighbourhood or at a house (preserved as a museum) in Islahhane Street (now Apostolou Pavlou Street) in the Koca Kasım Pasha neighbourhood in Salonica ( Selanik ), Ottoman Empire . His parents were Ali Rıza Efendi , a military officer originally from Kodžadžik ( Kocacık ), title deed clerk and lumber trader, and Zübeyde Hanım . Only one of Mustafa's siblings,
26702-524: Was meant to accommodate him and other nationalists to keep them loyal to the government. Mustafa Kemal had earlier declined to become the leader of the Sixth Army headquartered in Nusaybin . But according to Patrick Balfour , through manipulation and the help of friends and sympathizers, he became the inspector of virtually all of the Ottoman forces in Anatolia, tasked with overseeing the disbanding process of remaining Ottoman forces. Kemal had an abundance of connections and personal friends concentrated in
26871-404: Was now on the Nationalists' side. A plot by a loyalist Ottoman governor and a British intelligence officer to arrest Kemal before the Sivas Congress led to the cutting of all ties with the Ottoman government until a new election would be held in the lower house of parliament, the Chamber of Deputies . In October 1919, the last Ottoman governor loyal to Constantinople fled his province. Fearing
27040-440: Was potent in the capital, with 23 May 1919 being largest of the Sultanahmet Square demonstrations organized by the Turkish Hearths against the Greek occupation of Smyrna, the largest act of civil disobedience in Turkish history at that point. The Ottoman government condemned the landing, but could do little about it. Mustafa Kemal Pasha and his colleagues stepped ashore in Samsun on 19 May and set up their first quarters in
27209-502: Was put in place against the Communist Party of Turkey members. Communist political figures such as Hikmet Kıvılcımlı , Nâzım Hikmet , and Şefik Hüsnü were tried and sentenced to prison terms. Then, in 1937, a delegation headed by Atatürk decided to censor the writings of Kıvılcımlı as harmful communist propaganda. The heart of the new republic was the GNA, established during the Turkish War of Independence by Atatürk. The elections were free and used an egalitarian electoral system that
27378-416: Was recognized as the legitimate Turkish government, which signed the Treaty of Lausanne , a treaty more favorable to Turkey than Sèvres. The Allies evacuated Anatolia and eastern Thrace, the Ottoman government was overthrown, the monarchy abolished , and the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. With the war, a population exchange between Greece and Turkey ,
27547-511: Was rejected. In August 1922, Atatürk launched an all-out attack on the Greek lines at Afyonkarahisar in the Battle of Dumlupınar , and Turkish forces regained control of İzmir on 9 September 1922. On 10 September 1922, Atatürk sent a telegram to the League of Nations stating that the Turkish population was so worked up that the Ankara Government would not be responsible for the ensuing massacres . The Conference of Lausanne began on 21 November 1922. Turkey, represented by İsmet İnönü of
27716-432: Was replaced by Otto Liman von Sanders who became the new commander of the Yıldırım Army Group in early 1918.) Atatürk did not get along well with General von Falkenhayn and, together with Miralay İsmet Bey , wrote a report to Grand Vizier Talaat Pasha regarding the grim situation and lack of adequate resources in the Palestinian front. However, Talaat Pasha ignored their observations and refused their suggestion to form
27885-414: Was signed between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies of World War I , bringing hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre of World War I to an end. The Ottoman Army was to demobilize, its navy and air force handed to the Allies, and occupied territory in the Caucasus and Persia to be evacuated. Critically, Article VII granted the Allies the right to occupy forts controlling the Turkish Straits and
28054-474: Was the establishment of an organized national movement against the occupying forces. In June 1919, he issued the Amasya Circular , declaring the independence of the country was in danger. He resigned from the Ottoman Army on 8 July, and the Ottoman government issued a warrant for his arrest. But Kâzım Karabekir and other military commanders active in Eastern Anatolia followed Atatürk's lead and acknowledged him as their leader. On 4 September 1919, he assembled
28223-413: Was the only Turkish general in the war who never suffered a defeat. The war ended with the Armistice of Mudros which was signed on 30 October 1918, and all German and Austro-Hungarian troops in the Ottoman Empire were granted ample time to withdraw. On 31 October, Atatürk was appointed to the command of the Yıldırım Army Group, replacing Liman von Sanders. Atatürk organized the distribution of weapons to
28392-433: Was then simply an anti- Abdul Hamid movement. As for the actual occurrences of the genocides, Atatürk had since divested from the movement and was serving as a relatively junior Lieutenant Colonel fighting in Gallipoli and Western Thrace during the Armenian genocide . Historical evidence proves decisively that he was not involved with the killings, and that he later went on to condemn them. One such explicit condemnation
28561-441: Was welcome. If the government in Constantinople was not able to attain this after electing a new parliament, they insisted a provisional government should be promulgated to defend Turkish sovereignty. The Committee of Representation was established as a provisional executive body based in Anatolia, with Mustafa Kemal Pasha as its chairman. Following the congress, the Committee of Representation relocated to Sivas. As announced in
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