76-465: Analytic philosophy is an analysis focused , broad, contemporary movement or tradition within Western philosophy , especially anglophone philosophy. Analytic philosophy is characterized by a clarity of prose ; rigor in arguments; and making use of formal logic and mathematics, and, to a lesser degree, the natural sciences . It is further characterized by an interest in language and meaning known as
152-444: A mediated reference theory . His paper " The Thought: A Logical Inquiry " (1918) reflects both his anti-idealism or anti-psychologism and his interest in language. In the paper, he argues for a Platonist account of propositions or thoughts. British philosophy in the 19th century had seen a revival of logic started by Richard Whately , in reaction to the anti-logical tradition of British empiricism . The major figure of this period
228-448: A criticism of Russell's theory of descriptions explained in the latter's famous "On Denoting" article. In his book Individuals (1959), Strawson examines our conceptions of basic particulars . Austin, in the posthumously published How to Do Things with Words (1962), emphasized the theory of speech acts and the ability of words to do things (e. g. "I promise") and not just say things. This influenced several fields to undertake what
304-462: A given sample or compound. Example: Precipitation reaction B) Quantitative Analysis: It is to determine the quantity of individual component present in a given sample or compound. Example: To find concentration by uv-spectrophotometer. Chemists can use isotope analysis to assist analysts with issues in anthropology , archeology , food chemistry , forensics , geology , and a host of other questions of physical science . Analysts can discern
380-600: A home for the new religious opinions of the sixteenth century, it has since been one of the most politically radical universities in Germany. Jena was noted among other German universities at the time for allowing students to duel and to have a passion for Freiheit , which were popularly regarded as the necessary characteristics of German student life. The University of Jena has preserved a historical detention room or Karzer with famous caricatures by Swiss painter Martin Disteli . In
456-511: A method Russell thought could expose the underlying structure of philosophical problems. Logical form would be made clear by syntax . For example, the English word "is" has three distinct meanings, which predicate logic can express as follows: From about 1910 to 1930, analytic philosophers like Frege, Russell, Moore, and Russell's student Ludwig Wittgenstein emphasized creating an ideal language for philosophical analysis, which would be free from
532-527: A result of his logicist project, Frege developed predicate logic in his book Begriffsschrift (English: Concept-script , 1879), which allowed for a much greater range of sentences to be parsed into logical form than was possible using the ancient Aristotelian logic . An example of this is the problem of multiple generality . Neo-Kantianism dominated the late 19th century in German philosophy. Edmund Husserl's 1891 book Philosophie der Arithmetik argued that
608-555: A study of prosody (the formal analysis of meter) and phonic effects such as alliteration and rhyme , and cognitively in examination of the interplay of syntactic structures, figurative language, and other elements of the poem that work to produce its larger effects. University of Jena The University of Jena , officially the Friedrich Schiller University Jena ( German : Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena , abbreviated FSU , shortened form Uni Jena ),
684-469: A synthetic one, consisting of a reversion of all operations occurring in the analysis. Thus the aim of analysis was to aid in the discovery of synthetic proofs or solutions. James Gow uses a similar argument as Cajori, with the following clarification, in his A Short History of Greek Mathematics (1884): The synthetic proof proceeds by shewing that the proposed new truth involves certain admitted truths. An analytic proof begins by an assumption, upon which
760-418: A synthetic reasoning is founded. The Greeks distinguished theoretic from problematic analysis. A theoretic analysis is of the following kind. To prove that A is B, assume first that A is B. If so, then, since B is C and C is D and D is E, therefore A is E. If this be known a falsity, A is not B. But if this be a known truth and all the intermediate propositions be convertible , then the reverse process, A
836-531: A synthetic solution of the problem. In statistics , the term analysis may refer to any method used for data analysis . Among the many such methods, some are: The field of intelligence employs analysts to break down and understand a wide array of questions. Intelligence agencies may use heuristics , inductive and deductive reasoning , social network analysis , dynamic network analysis , link analysis , and brainstorming to sort through problems they face. Military intelligence may explore issues through
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#1732877334701912-441: A theory of meaning as use . It also contains the private language argument and the notion of family resemblance . The other trend was known as " Oxford philosophy", in contrast to earlier analytic Cambridge philosophers (including the early Wittgenstein) who thought philosophers should avoid the deceptive trappings of natural language by constructing ideal languages. Influenced by Moore's Common Sense and what they perceived as
988-413: Is E, E is D, D is C, C is B, therefore A is B, constitutes a synthetic proof of the original theorem. Problematic analysis is applied in all cases where it is proposed to construct a figure which is assumed to satisfy a given condition. The problem is then converted into some theorem which is involved in the condition and which is proved synthetically, and the steps of this synthetic proof taken backwards are
1064-538: Is English mathematician George Boole . Other figures include William Hamilton , Augustus de Morgan , William Stanley Jevons , Alice's Adventures in Wonderland author Lewis Carroll , Hugh MacColl , and American pragmatist Charles Sanders Peirce . British philosophy in the late 19th century was dominated by British idealism , a neo-Hegelian movement, as taught by philosophers such as F. H. Bradley (1846–1924) and T. H. Green (1836–1882). Analytic philosophy in
1140-544: Is a public research university located in Jena , Thuringia , Germany . The university was established in 1558 and is counted among the ten oldest universities in Germany . It is affiliated with six Nobel Prize winners, most recently in 2000 when Jena graduate Herbert Kroemer won the Nobel Prize for physics. It was renamed after the poet Friedrich Schiller who was teaching as professor of philosophy when Jena attracted some of
1216-532: Is a relatively recent development. The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις ( analysis , "a breaking-up" or "an untying;" from ana- "up, throughout" and lysis "a loosening"). From it also comes the word's plural, analyses . As a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to René Descartes ( Discourse on the Method ), and Galileo Galilei . It has also been ascribed to Isaac Newton , in
1292-519: Is a university association with the Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg and the University of Leipzig . The aim is firstly to give the students the opportunity to visit with relatively few problems at the partner universities and events in order to broaden the range of subjects and topics. Currently e. g. has joined a cooperation in teaching in the field of bioinformatics. In addition,
1368-588: Is called a performative turn . In Sense and Sensibilia (1962), Austin criticized sense-data theories. The school known as Australian realism began when John Anderson accepted the Challis Chair of Philosophy at the University of Sydney in 1927. His elder brother was William Anderson, Professor of Philosophy at Auckland University College from 1921 to his death in 1955, who was described as "the most dominant figure in New Zealand philosophy." J. N. Findlay
1444-427: Is mere appearance; we reverted to the opposite extreme, and that everything is real that common sense, uninfluenced by philosophy of theology, supposes real. With a sense of escaping from prison, we allowed ourselves to think that grass is green, that the sun and stars would exist if no one was aware of them, and also that there is a pluralistic timeless world of Platonic ideas." Bertrand Russell, during his early career,
1520-604: Is recognized in several university ranking systems. As per the QS World University Rankings for 2024, the university is ranked 461st in the world and 26th nationally. In the Times Higher Education World University Rankings of 2024, it is placed at 201-250th globally and 22-24th within the country. The Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) for 2022 places it within the 401-500 bracket globally, and between 25th and 31st in
1596-404: Is to be the value of a variable ". He also dubbed the problem of nonexistence Plato's beard . Quine sought to naturalize philosophy and saw philosophy as continuous with science, but instead of logical positivism advocated a kind of semantic holism and ontological relativity , which explained that every term in any statement has its meaning contingent on a vast network of knowledge and belief,
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#17328773347011672-435: Is widespread influence and debate between the analytic and continental traditions; some philosophers see the differences between the two traditions as being based on institutions, relationships, and ideology, rather than anything of significant philosophical substance. The distinction has also been drawn between "analytic" being academic or technical philosophy and "continental" being literary philosophy. Analytic philosophy
1748-594: The School of Brentano and its members, such as Edmund Husserl and Alexius Meinong —gave to analytic philosophy the problem of intentionality or of aboutness. For Brentano, all mental events have a real, non-mental intentional object, which the thinking is directed at or "about". Meinong is known for his unique ontology of real nonexistent objects as a solution to the problem of empty names . The Graz School followed Meinong. The Polish Lwów–Warsaw school , founded by Kazimierz Twardowski in 1895, grew as an offshoot of
1824-481: The Tractatus . The criticisms of Frank P. Ramsey on color and logical form in the Tractatus led to some of Wittgenstein's first doubts with regard to his early philosophy. Philosophers refer to them like two different philosophers: "early Wittgenstein" and "later Wittgenstein". In his later philosophy, Wittgenstein develops the concept of a " language-game " and, rather than his prior picture theory of meaning, advocates
1900-453: The applied approach, looking at individual language development and clinical issues. Literary criticism is the analysis of literature . The focus can be as diverse as the analysis of Homer or Freud . While not all literary-critical methods are primarily analytical in nature, the main approach to the teaching of literature in the west since the mid-twentieth century, literary formal analysis or close reading, is. This method, rooted in
1976-407: The history of words , the meaning of words and word combinations , sentence construction , basic construction beyond the sentence level , stylistics , and conversation . It examines the above using statistics and modeling , and semantics . It analyses language in context of anthropology , biology , evolution , geography , history , neurology , psychology , and sociology . It also takes
2052-572: The linguistic turn . It has developed several new branches of philosophy and logic, notably philosophy of language , philosophy of mathematics , philosophy of science , modern predicate logic and mathematical logic . The proliferation of analysis in philosophy began around the turn of the 20th century and has been dominant since the latter half of the 20th century. Central figures in its historical development are Gottlob Frege , Bertrand Russell , G. E. Moore , and Ludwig Wittgenstein . Other important figures in its history include Franz Brentano ,
2128-492: The logical positivists (particularly Rudolf Carnap ), the ordinary language philosophers , W. V. O. Quine , and Karl Popper . After the decline of logical positivism, Saul Kripke , David Lewis , and others led a revival in metaphysics . Analytic philosophy is often contrasted with continental philosophy , which was coined as a catch-all term for other methods that were prominent in continental Europe , most notably existentialism , phenomenology , and Hegelianism . There
2204-460: The verification principle , according to which every meaningful statement is either analytic or synthetic. The truths of logic and mathematics were tautologies , and those of science were verifiable empirical claims. These two constituted the entire universe of meaningful judgments; anything else was nonsense. This led the logical positivists to reject many traditional problems of philosophy, especially those of metaphysics , as meaningless. It had
2280-467: The "manifest image" and the "scientific image" of the world. Sellars's goal of a synoptic philosophy that unites the everyday and scientific views of reality is the foundation and archetype of what is sometimes called the Pittsburgh School, whose members include Robert Brandom , John McDowell , and John Haugeland . Also among the developments that resulted in the decline of logical positivism and
2356-451: The 20th century the university was promoted through cooperation with Carl Zeiss (company) and thereby enabling it to increase the student population as a mass university. In 1905 the university had 1,100 students and 112 university teachers, so this figure has since been almost twenty-fold. The Friedrich-Schiller University is the only comprehensive university in Thuringia. Since 1995, there
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2432-614: The Bachstraße received total or significant physical damage. Completely destroyed were the Botanical Garden, the psychological and the physiological institute and three chemical Institutes. An important event for the National Socialist period was the investigation of the pediatrician Yusuf Ibrahim . A Senate Commission noted the participation of the physician to the "euthanasia" murders of physically or mentally disabled children. In
2508-449: The English speaking world to logical positivism. The logical positivists saw their rejection of metaphysics in some ways as a recapitulation of a quote by David Hume : If we take in our hand any volume; of divinity or school metaphysics, for instance; let us ask, Does it contain any abstract reasoning concerning quantity or number? No. Does it contain any experimental reasoning concerning matter of fact and existence? No. Commit it then to
2584-616: The Enlightenment were developed as research institutions. 2014 the "Center of Advanced Research" (ZAF) was established. Jena University is one of the founder of The German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, that was founded in 2013. It is a research centre of the German Research Foundation (DFG). Friedrich Schiller University is the only German university with chairs for either gravitational theory or Caucasus Studies. The University of Jena
2660-530: The Graz School. It was closely associated with the Warsaw School of Mathematics . Gottlob Frege (1848–1925) was a German geometry professor at the University of Jena who is understood as the father of analytic philosophy. Frege proved influential as a philosopher of mathematics in Germany at the beginning of the 20th century. He advocated logicism , the project of reducing arithmetic to pure logic. As
2736-401: The academic movement labelled The New Criticism , approaches texts – chiefly short poems such as sonnets , which by virtue of their small size and significant complexity lend themselves well to this type of analysis – as units of discourse that can be understood in themselves, without reference to biographical or historical frameworks. This method of analysis breaks up the text linguistically in
2812-544: The additional effect of making (ethical and aesthetic) value judgments (as well as religious statements and beliefs) meaningless. Logical positivists therefore typically considered philosophy as having a minimal function . For them, philosophy concerned the clarification of thoughts, rather than having a distinct subject matter of its own. Several logical positivists were Jewish, such as Neurath, Hans Hahn , Philipp Frank , Friedrich Waissmann , and Reichenbach. Others, like Carnap, were gentiles but socialists or pacifists. With
2888-412: The ambiguities of ordinary language that, in their opinion, often made philosophy invalid. During this phase, they sought to understand language (and hence philosophical problems) by using logic to formalize how philosophical statements are made. An important aspect of Hegelianism and British idealism was logical holism —the opinion that there are aspects of the world that can be known only by knowing
2964-565: The coming to power of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1933, many members of the Vienna and Berlin Circles fled to Britain and the United States, which helped to reinforce the dominance of logical positivism and analytic philosophy in anglophone countries. In 1936, Schlick was murdered in Vienna by his former student Hans Nelböck . The same year, A. J. Ayer 's work Language Truth and Logic introduced
3040-429: The concentration of elements is important in managing a nuclear reactor , so nuclear scientists will analyze neutron activation to develop discrete measurements within vast samples. A matrix can have a considerable effect on the way a chemical analysis is conducted and the quality of its results. Analysis can be done manually or with a device . A) Qualitative Analysis : It is concerned with which components are in
3116-552: The concept of the cardinal number derived from psychical acts of grouping objects and counting them. In contrast to this " psychologism ", Frege in The Foundations of Arithmetic (1884) and The Basic Laws of Arithmetic (German: Grundgesetze der Arithmetik , 1893–1903), argued similarly to Plato or Bolzano that mathematics and logic have their own public objects, independent of the private judgments or mental states of individual mathematicians and logicians. Following Frege,
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3192-565: The cooperation provides the university management the opportunity to share experiences with their regular meetings and initiate common projects. So z. B. went from the successful bid to the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) from the university network. The co-operation continues at other levels: for example in a joint mentoring program for female postdocs or in the central German archives network. And last but not least, there are common sports activities. Since October 2014,
3268-624: The debates remains active. The rise of metaphysics mirrored the decline of logical positivism, first challenged by the later Wittgenstein. Wilfred Sellars 's criticism of the "Myth of the Given", in Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind (1956), challenged logical positivism by arguing against sense-data theories. In his "Philosophy and the Scientific Image of Man" (1962), Sellars distinguishes between
3344-455: The design. Modern mathematical analysis is the study of infinite processes. It is the branch of mathematics that includes calculus. It can be applied in the study of classical concepts of mathematics, such as real numbers , complex variables , trigonometric functions , and algorithms , or of non-classical concepts like constructivism , harmonics , infinity , and vectors . Florian Cajori explains in A History of Mathematics (1893)
3420-436: The difference between modern and ancient mathematical analysis, as distinct from logical analysis, as follows: The terms synthesis and analysis are used in mathematics in a more special sense than in logic. In ancient mathematics they had a different meaning from what they now have. The oldest definition of mathematical analysis as opposed to synthesis is that given in [appended to] Euclid , XIII. 5, which in all probability
3496-503: The early Russell claimed that the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the simple constituents of complex notions. Wittgenstein developed a comprehensive system of logical atomism with a picture theory of meaning in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus ( German : Logisch-Philosophische Abhandlung , 1921) sometimes known as simply the Tractatus . He claimed the universe is the totality of actual states of affairs and that these states of affairs can be expressed and mirrored by
3572-473: The flames: for it can contain nothing but sophistry and illusion. After World War II , from the late 1940s to the 1950s, analytic philosophy became involved with ordinary-language analysis. This resulted in two main trends. One strain of language analysis continued Wittgenstein's later philosophy, from the Philosophical Investigations (1953), which differed dramatically from his early work of
3648-560: The form of a practical method of physical discovery (which he did not name). The converse of analysis is synthesis : putting the pieces back together again in a new or different whole. The field of chemistry uses analysis in three ways: to identify the components of a particular chemical compound (qualitative analysis), to identify the proportions of components in a mixture (quantitative analysis), and to break down chemical processes and examine chemical reactions between elements of matter . For an example of its use, analysis of
3724-447: The language of first-order predicate logic. Thus a picture of the universe can be constructed by expressing facts in the form of atomic propositions and linking them using logical operators . Wittgenstein thought he had solved all the problems of philosophy with the Tractatus . The work further ultimately concludes that all of its propositions are meaningless, illustrated with a ladder one must toss away after climbing up it. During
3800-720: The late 1920s to 1940s, a group of philosophers known as the Vienna Circle , and another one known as the Berlin Circle , developed Russell and Wittgenstein's philosophy into a doctrine known as " logical positivism " (or logical empiricism). The Vienna Circle was led by Moritz Schlick and included Rudolf Carnap and Otto Neurath . The Berlin Circle was led by Hans Reichenbach and included Carl Hempel and mathematician David Hilbert . Logical positivists used formal logical methods to develop an empiricist account of knowledge. They adopted
3876-501: The later Wittgenstein's quietism , the Oxford philosophers claimed that ordinary language already represents many subtle distinctions not recognized in the formulation of traditional philosophical theories or problems. While schools such as logical positivism emphasize logical terms, which are supposed to be universal and separate from contingent factors (such as culture, language, historical conditions), ordinary-language philosophy emphasizes
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#17328773347013952-513: The latter 19th century, the department of zoology taught evolutionary theory , with Carl Gegenbaur , Ernst Haeckel and others publishing detailed theories at the time of Darwin 's " Origin of Species " (1858). The later fame of Ernst Haeckel eclipsed Darwin in some European countries, as the term "Haeckelism" was more common than Darwinism . In 1905, Jena had 1,100 students enrolled and its teaching staff (including Privatdozenten ) numbered 112. Amongst its numerous auxiliaries then were
4028-644: The library, with 200,000 volumes; the observatory; the meteorological institute; the botanical garden; the seminaries of theology, philology, and education; and the well-equipped clinical, anatomical, and physical institutes. After the end of the Saxon duchies in 1918, and their merger with further principalities into the Free State of Thuringia in 1920, the university was renamed as the Thuringian State University (Thüringische Landesuniversität) in 1921. In 1934
4104-401: The logicists tended to advocate a kind of mathematical Platonism . Frege also proved influential in the philosophy of language and analytic philosophy's interest in meaning . Michael Dummett traces the linguistic turn to Frege's Foundations of Arithmetic and his context principle . Frege's paper " On Sense and Reference " (1892) is seminal, containing Frege's puzzles and providing
4180-437: The most influential minds at the turn of the 19th century. With Karl Leonhard Reinhold , Johann Gottlieb Fichte , G. W. F. Hegel , F. W. J. Schelling and Friedrich Schlegel on its teaching staff, the university was at the centre of the emergence of German idealism and early Romanticism . As of 2014 , the university has around 19,000 students enrolled and 375 professors. Its current president, Walter Rosenthal , has held
4256-481: The narrower sense of 20th and 21st century anglophone philosophy is usually thought to begin with Cambridge philosophers Bertrand Russell and G. E. Moore's rejection of Hegelianism for being obscure; or the "revolt against idealism"—see for example Moore's " A Defence of Common Sense ". Russell summed up Moore's influence: "G. E. Moore...took the lead in rebellion, and I followed, with a sense of emancipation. Bradley had argued that everything common sense believes in
4332-694: The national context. Among the collections which are open to the public are the Jena Phyletisches Museum , an institution which is unique in Europe for illustrating the history of evolution, the Ernst-Haeckel-Memorial Museum , the Mineralogical Collection which traces its roots back to Goethe and the second oldest Botanical Garden of Middle Europe . The Schiller Gardenhouse [ de ] ( Schillers Gartenhaus ) and
4408-407: The origins of natural and man-made isotopes in the study of environmental radioactivity . Analysts in the field of engineering look at requirements , structures , mechanisms, systems and dimensions . Electrical engineers analyse systems in electronics . Life cycles and system failures are broken down and studied by engineers. It is also looking at different factors incorporated within
4484-542: The partitioning of John Frederick's duchy, was thus named Ducal Pan-Saxon University ( German : Herzoglich Sächsische Gesamtuniversität ) or Salana (after the river Saale ). Prior to the 20th century, university enrollment peaked in the 18th century. The university's reputation reached its zenith under the auspices of Duke Charles Augustus , Goethe 's patron (1787–1806), when Gottlieb Fichte , G. W. F. Hegel , Friedrich Schelling , Friedrich von Schlegel and Friedrich Schiller were on its teaching staff. Founded as
4560-419: The pharmacologist Walter Rosenthal is the president of the university; Chancellor is since 2007 the mathematician Klaus Bartholmé. The university is organized in 10 schools: Research at Friedrich Schiller University traditionally focusses on both humanities and sciences. In addition to the faculties the following "Collaborative Research Centers" ( German "Sonderforschungsbereich", short: "SFB") operate at
4636-701: The revival of metaphysical theorizing was Harvard philosopher W. V. O. Quine 's attack on the analytic–synthetic distinction in " Two Dogmas of Empiricism ", published in 1951 in The Philosophical Review and republished in Quine's book From A Logical Point of View (1953), a paper "sometimes regarded as the most important in all of twentieth-century philosophy ". From a Logical Point of View also contains Quine's essay " On What There Is " (1948), which elucidates Russell's theory of descriptions and contains Quine's famous dictum of ontological commitment , "To be
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#17328773347014712-545: The role since 2014. Elector John Frederick of Saxony first thought of a plan to establish a university at Jena upon Saale in 1547 while he was being held captive by emperor Charles V . The plan was put into motion by his three sons and, after having obtained a charter from the Emperor Ferdinand I , the university was established on 2 February 1558. The university, jointly maintained by the Saxon Duchies derived from
4788-507: The seminal text of classical logic and of the logicist project, encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest in the development of symbolic logic . It used a notation from Italian logician Giuseppe Peano , and it uses a theory of types to avoid the pitfalls of Russell's paradox. Whitehead developed process metaphysics in Process and Reality . Additionally, Russell adopted Frege's predicate logic as his primary philosophical method,
4864-425: The speaker's conception of the entire world. In his magnum opus Word and Object (1960), Quine introduces the idea of radical translation , an introduction to his theory of the indeterminacy of translation , and specifically to prove the inscrutability of reference . Important also for the revival of metaphysics was the further development of modal logic , first introduced by pragmatist C. I. Lewis , especially
4940-729: The transfer of power and won great support among the student body elections in January 1933, achieving 49.3% of the vote, which represents the second best result. Between the Jena connections and the NS students wide-ranging human and ideological connections were recorded. When the Allied air raids to Jena in February and March struck in 1945, the University Library, the university main building and several clinics in
5016-494: The university was renamed again, receiving its present name of Friedrich Schiller University . During the 20th century, the cooperation between Zeiss corporation and the university brought new prosperity and attention to Jena, resulting in a dramatic increase in funding and enrollment. During the Third Reich, staunch Nazis moved into leading positions at the university. The racial researcher and SS-Hauptscharführer Karl Astel
5092-627: The university: Participations in DFG-Collaborative Research Centres: In 2006 the research center, Jena Center – History of the 20th century, was founded. In 2007 the graduate school "Jena School for Microbial Communication" (JSMC) was established within the German Universities Excellence Initiative . In 2008 the Center for Molecular Biomedicine (CMB) and the interdisciplinary research center Laboratory of
5168-595: The use of game theory , Red Teaming , and wargaming . Signals intelligence applies cryptanalysis and frequency analysis to break codes and ciphers . Business intelligence applies theories of competitive intelligence analysis and competitor analysis to resolve questions in the marketplace . Law enforcement intelligence applies a number of theories in crime analysis . Linguistics explores individual languages and language in general. It breaks language down and analyses its component parts: theory , sounds and their meaning , utterance usage , word origins ,
5244-607: The use of language by ordinary people. The most prominent ordinary-language philosophers during the 1950s were P. F. Strawson , J. L. Austin , and Gilbert Ryle . Ordinary-language philosophers often sought to resolve philosophical problems by showing them to be the result of misunderstanding ordinary language. Ryle, in The Concept of Mind (1949), criticized Cartesian dualism , arguing in favor of disposing of " Descartes' myth " via recognizing " category errors ". Strawson first became well known with his article "On Referring" (1950),
5320-425: The whole world. This is closely related to the doctrine of internal relations , the opinion that relations between items are internal relations , that is, essential properties of the nature of those items. Russell and Moore in response promulgated logical atomism and the doctrine of external relations —the belief that the world consists of independent facts. Inspired by developments in modern formal logic ,
5396-402: The work of Saul Kripke and his Naming and Necessity (1980). Analysis Analysis ( pl. : analyses ) is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts in order to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C. ), though analysis as a formal concept
5472-533: Was a student of Ernst Mally of the Austrian realists and taught at the University of Otago . The Finnish Georg Henrik von Wright succeeded Wittgenstein at Cambridge in 1948. One striking difference with respect to early analytic philosophy was the revival of metaphysical theorizing during the second half of the 20th century, and metaphysics remains a fertile topic of research. Although many discussions are continuations of old ones from previous decades and centuries,
5548-719: Was appointed professor in 1933, bypassing traditional qualifications and process; he later became rector of the university in 1939. Also in 1933, many professors had to leave the university as a consequence of the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service . Student fraternities – in particular the Burschenschaften – were dissolved and incorporated into the Nazi student federation. The Nazi student federation enjoyed before
5624-466: Was deeply influenced by what is called Austrian realism in the former state of Austria-Hungary , so much so that Michael Dummett has remarked that analytic philosophy is better characterized as Anglo-Austrian rather than the usual Anglo-American. University of Vienna philosopher and psychologist Franz Brentano —in Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (1874) and through the subsequent influence of
5700-456: Was framed by Eudoxus : "Analysis is the obtaining of the thing sought by assuming it and so reasoning up to an admitted truth; synthesis is the obtaining of the thing sought by reasoning up to the inference and proof of it." The analytic method is not conclusive, unless all operations involved in it are known to be reversible. To remove all doubt, the Greeks, as a rule, added to the analytic process
5776-1010: Was much influenced by Frege. Russell famously discovered the paradox in Basic Law V which undermined Frege's logicist project. However, like Frege, Russell argued that mathematics is reducible to logical fundamentals, in The Principles of Mathematics (1903). He also argued for Meinongianism . Russell sought to resolve various philosophical problems by applying Frege's new logical apparatus, most famously in his theory of definite descriptions in " On Denoting ", published in Mind in 1905. Russell here argues against Meinongianism. He argues all names (aside from demonstratives like "this" or "that") are disguised definite descriptions, using this to solve ascriptions of nonexistence. This position came to be called descriptivism . Later, his book written with Alfred North Whitehead , Principia Mathematica (1910–1913),
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