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161-600: "Manchuria" was coined in the 19th century to refer to the northeastern part of the Qing Empire, the traditional homeland of the Manchu people . After the Amur Annexation by the Russian Empire , the ceded areas were known as "Outer Manchuria" or "Russian Manchuria". ( Russian : Приаму́рье , romanized :  Priamurye ; simplified Chinese : 外满洲 ; traditional Chinese : 外滿洲 ; pinyin : Wài Mǎnzhōu or simplified Chinese : 外东北 ; traditional Chinese : 外東北 ; pinyin : Wài Dōngběi ; lit. 'outer northeast'). Outer Manchuria comprises

322-694: A Tungusic East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia . They are an officially recognized ethnic minority in China and the people from whom Manchuria derives its name. The Later Jin (1616–1636) and Qing (1636–1912) dynasties of China were established and ruled by the Manchus, who are descended from the Jurchen people who earlier established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in northern China. Manchus form

483-400: A water vascular system that provides hydraulic pressure to the tentacles and tube feet, allowing them to move, and a haemal system . The latter is more complex than that in other echinoderms, and consists of well-developed vessels as well as open sinuses . A central haemal ring surrounds the pharynx next to the ring canal of the water vascular system, and sends off additional vessels along

644-454: A Han Chinese named Zhao Tinglu, the son of former Han bannerman Zhao Quan, and gave him a new name, Quanheng in order that he be able to benefit from his adopted son receiving a salary as a Banner soldier. Commoner Manchu bannermen who were not nobility were called irgen which meant common, in contrast to the Manchu nobility of the "Eight Great Houses" who held noble titles. Manchu bannermen of

805-575: A Manchu banner in the reign of the Kangxi emperor . Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan (台尼堪, watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan (撫順尼堪, Fushun Chinese) backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of the Qing Qianlong emperor . It was between 1618 and 1629 when

966-408: A central axis. However, because of their posture, they have secondarily evolved a degree of bilateral symmetry. For example, because one side of the body is typically pressed against the substratum, and the other is not, there is usually some difference between the two surfaces (except for Apodida ). Like sea urchins , most sea cucumbers have five strip-like ambulacral areas running along the length of

1127-502: A finer, purer and homogeneous sediment. Therefore, sea cucumbers play a major role in the biological processing of the sea bed (bioturbation, purge, homogenization of the substratum etc.). Most sea cucumbers reproduce by releasing sperm and ova into the ocean water. Depending on conditions, one organism can produce thousands of gametes . Sea cucumbers are typically dioecious , with separate male and female individuals, but some species are protandric . The reproductive system consists of

1288-437: A flattened discoid shape, and contains hemoglobin . As a result, in many (though not all) species, both the blood and the coelomic fluid are red in colour. Vanadium has been reported in high concentrations in holothurian blood, however researchers have been unable to reproduce these results. Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers possess pentaradial symmetry , with their bodies divided into five nearly identical parts around

1449-563: A long band of cilia wrapped around its body, and somewhat resembles the bipinnaria larva of starfish. As the larva grows it transforms into the doliolaria , with a barrel-shaped body and three to five separate rings of cilia. The pentacularia is the third larval stage of sea cucumber, where the tentacles appear. The tentacles are usually the first adult features to appear, before the regular tube feet. Numerous small animals can live in symbiosis or commensalism with sea cucumbers, as well as some parasites. Some cleaner shrimps can live on

1610-462: A memorial staying Xi'an Manchu bannermen still had martial skills although not up to those in the past in a 1737 memorial from Cimbu. By the 1780s, the military skills of Xi'an Manchu bannermen dropped enormously and they had been regarded as the most militarily skilled provincial Manchu banner garrison. Manchu women from the Xi'an garrison often left the walled Manchu garrison and went to hot springs outside

1771-468: A much wider area of the body. Those of the order Apodida have no tube feet or ambulacral areas at all, and burrow through sediment with muscular contractions of their body similar to that of worms, however five radial lines are generally still obvious along their body. Even in those sea cucumbers that lack regular tube feet, those that are immediately around the mouth are always present. These are highly modified into retractile tentacles , much larger than

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1932-542: A new Jurchen script (later known as Manchu script ) using the traditional Mongolian alphabet as a reference. When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as a group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name). The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led to

2093-412: A number of Manchu autonomous counties in China, such as Xinbin , Xiuyan , Qinglong , Fengning , Yitong , Qingyuan , Weichang , Kuancheng , Benxi , Kuandian , Huanren , Fengcheng , Beizhen and over 300 Manchu towns and townships. Manchus are the largest minority group in China without an autonomous region . "Manchu" ( Manchu : ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ ,  Möllendorff : manju ) was adopted as

2254-655: A pentamerous radial symmetry. While this can easily be seen in a sea star or brittle star, in the sea cucumber it is less distinct and seen in their five primary tentacles. The pentamerous radial symmetry can also be seen in their five ambulacral canals. The ambulacral canals are used in their water vascular system which is another characteristic that binds this phylum together. The water vascular system develops from their middle coelom or hydrocoel. Echinoderms use this system for many things including movement by pushing water in and out of their podia or "tube feet". Echinoderms tube feet (including sea cucumbers) can be seen aligned along

2415-556: A proclamation naming himself Genggiyen Khan ( Manchu : ᡤᡝᠩᡤᡳᠶᡝᠨ ᡥᠠᠨ ,  Möllendorff : genggiyen han ,  Abkai : genggiyen han , "bright khan") of the Later Jin dynasty ( Manchu : ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ,  Möllendorff : aisin gurun ,  Abkai : aisin gurun , 後金). Nurhaci then renounced the Ming overlordship with the Seven Grievances and launched his attack on

2576-523: A puppet state in Manchuria, was created by the Empire of Japan which was nominally ruled by the deposed Last Emperor, Puyi , in 1932. Although the nation's name implied a primarily Manchu affiliation, it was actually a completely new country for all the ethnicities in Manchuria, which had a majority Han population and was opposed by many Manchus as well as people of other ethnicities who fought against Japan in

2737-479: A result of their conquest of Ming China , almost all the Manchus followed the prince regent Dorgon and the Shunzhi Emperor to Beijing and settled there. A few of them were sent to other places such as Inner Mongolia , Xinjiang and Tibet to serve as garrison troops. There were only 1524 Bannermen left in Manchuria at the time of the initial Manchu conquest. After a series of border conflicts with

2898-420: A self-defense response. MCTs can be used in many ways but are all similar at the cellular level and in mechanics of function. A common trend in the uses of MCTs is that they are generally used for self-defense mechanisms and in regeneration. Holothurian classification is complex and their paleontological phylogeny relies on a limited number of well-preserved specimens. The modern taxonomy is based first of all on

3059-487: A series of narrow tubules branching from a common duct, and lie on either side of the digestive tract. Gas exchange occurs across the thin walls of the tubules, to and from the fluid of the main body cavity. Together with the intestine, the respiratory trees also act as excretory organs, with nitrogenous waste diffusing across the tubule walls in the form of ammonia and phagocytic coelomocytes depositing particulate waste. Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers possess both

3220-456: A single gonad , consisting of a cluster of tubules emptying into a single duct that opens on the upper surface of the animal, close to the tentacles. At least 30 species, including the red-chested sea cucumber ( Pseudocnella insolens ), fertilize their eggs internally and then pick up the fertilized zygote with one of their feeding tentacles. The egg is then inserted into a pouch on the adult's body, where it develops and eventually hatches from

3381-594: A useful role in the marine ecosystem as they help recycle nutrients, breaking down detritus and other organic matter , after which bacteria can continue the decomposition process. Like all echinoderms , sea cucumbers have an endoskeleton just below the skin, calcified structures that are usually reduced to isolated microscopic ossicles (or sclerietes) joined by connective tissue . In some species these can sometimes be enlarged to flattened plates, forming an armour. In pelagic species such as Pelagothuria natatrix (order Elasipodida , family Pelagothuriidae ),

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3542-409: A very supple organism. For most echinoderms, their ossicles are found in units making up a three dimensional structure. However, in sea cucumbers the ossicles are found in a two-dimensional network. All echinoderms also possess anatomical feature(s) called mutable collagenous tissues , or MCTs. Such tissues can rapidly change their passive mechanical properties from soft to stiff under the control of

3703-458: Is "undoubtedly eyeing this vast territory, which potentially contains incalculable mineral wealth", referring to Asian Russia generally, further noting that "[s]ignificant portions of this region were under Chinese sovereignty until the 1860 Treaty of Peking". However, two American historians, Jon K. Chang and Bruce A. Elleman disagree with Larin, Radchenko and other Russian historians. Chang and Elleman note that in 1919 and 1920, Lev M. Karakhan ,

3864-488: Is a compound word. Man was from the word mangga ( ᠮᠠᠩᡤᠠ ) which means "strong," and ju ( ᠵᡠ ) means "arrow." So Manju actually means "intrepid arrow". There are other hypotheses, such as Fu Sinian 's "etymology of Jianzhou"; Zhang Binglin 's "etymology of Manshi"; Ichimura Sanjiro 's "etymology of Wuji and Mohe"; Sun Wenliang's "etymology of Manzhe"; "etymology of mangu(n) river" and so on. An extensive etymological study from 2022 lends additional support to

4025-514: Is called trivium (with three rows of tube feet), while the dorsal face is named bivium . A remarkable feature of these animals is the "catch" collagen that forms their body wall. This can be loosened and tightened at will, and if the animal wants to squeeze through a small gap, it can essentially liquefy its body and pour into the space. To keep itself safe in these crevices and cracks, the sea cucumber will hook up all its collagen fibers to make its body firm again. The most common way to separate

4186-406: Is doubled here by a bilateral symmetry which makes them look like chordates . However, a central symmetry is still visible in some species through five 'radii', which extend from the mouth to the anus (just like for sea urchins), on which the tube feet are attached. There is thus no "oral" or "aboral" face as for sea stars and other echinoderms, but the animal stands on one of its sides, and this face

4347-406: Is essentially identical with the coelomic fluid that bathes the organs directly, and also fills the water vascular system. Phagocytic coelomocytes, somewhat similar in function to the white blood cells of vertebrates , are formed within the haemal vessels, and travel throughout the body cavity as well as both circulatory systems. An additional form of coelomocyte, not found in other echinoderms, has

4508-699: Is of paternal Mongol origin. Many Jurchen families descended from the original Jin Jurchen migrants in Han areas like those using the surnames Wang and Nian 粘 have openly reclaimed their ethnicity and registered as Manchus. Wanyan (完顏) clan members who had changed their surnames to Wang (王) after the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty applied successfully to the PRC government for their ethnic group to be marked as Manchu despite never having been part of

4669-399: Is surgically removed, demonstrating that it does not have a central role in nervous coordination. In addition, five major nerves run from the nerve ring down the length of the body beneath each of the ambulacral areas. Most sea cucumbers have no distinct sensory organs, although there are various nerve endings scattered through the skin, giving the animal a sense of touch and a sensitivity to

4830-608: Is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jušen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based in any real shared culture. It was for pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism," since Nurhaci said to the Mongols: "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat, and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages." A century after

4991-503: The Amur and Ussuri rivers. As a result, China lost the region that came to be known as Outer Manchuria or Russian Manchuria (an area of 350,000 square miles (910,000 km)) and access to the Sea of Japan . In the wake of these events, the Qing government changed course and encouraged Han Chinese migration to Manchuria ( Chuang Guandong ). In 2016, Victor L. Larin ( Виктор Лаврентьевич Ларин ) ,

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5152-652: The Eight Banners after they were moved there in 1644, since Han Chinese were expelled and not allowed to re-enter the inner part of the city. Only after the " Hundred Days Reform ", during the reign of emperor Guangxu , were Han were allowed to re-enter inner Beijing. Many Manchu Bannermen in Beijing supported the Boxers in the Boxer Rebellion and shared their anti-foreign sentiment. The Manchu Bannermen were devastated by

5313-495: The Florida reefs, has a volume of well over 500 cubic centimeters (31 cu in), and 25–30 cm (10–12 in) long. Most possess five rows of tube feet (called " podia "), but Apodida lacks these and moves by crawling; the podia can be of smooth aspect or provided with fleshy appendages (like Thelenota ananas ). The podia on the dorsal surface generally have no locomotive role, and are transformed into papillae. At one of

5474-615: The Indigenous Australians of Arnhem Land from at least the 18th century and probably earlier. This is the first recorded example of trade between the inhabitants of the Australian continent and their Asian neighbours . There are many commercially important species of sea cucumber that are harvested and dried for export for use in Chinese cuisine as hoisam . Some of the more commonly found species in markets include: According to

5635-555: The Mongol siege upon Zhongdu (Beijing) in the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty . The Yuan grouped people into different groups based on how recently their state surrendered to the Yuan. Subjects of southern Song were grouped as southerners (nan ren) and also called manzi. Subjects of the Jin dynasty, Western Xia and kingdom of Dali in Yunnan in southern China were classified as northerners, also using

5796-597: The Mongols and the Khitans on the steppes. Most Jurchens raised pigs and stock animals and were farmers. In 1019, Jurchen pirates raided Japan for slaves. Fujiwara Notada, the Japanese governor was killed. In total, 1,280 Japanese were taken prisoner, 374 Japanese were killed and 380 Japanese-owned livestock were killed for food. Only 259 or 270 were returned by Koreans from the 8 ships. The woman Uchikura no Ishime's report

5957-790: The Opium Wars , Qing China was forced to sign a series of treaties that gave away territories and ports to various Western powers as well as to Russia and Japan; these were collectively known by the Chinese side as the Unequal Treaties . Starting with the Treaty of Aigun in 1858 and, in the wake of the Second Opium War , the Treaty of Peking in 1860, the Sino–Russian border was realigned in Russia's favour along

6118-543: The Qiqihar ( Manchu : ᠴᡳᠴᡳᡤᠠᡵ ,  Möllendorff : cicigar ,  Abkai : qiqigar ) District of Heilongjiang Province. Until 1924, the Chinese government continued to pay stipends to Manchu bannermen, but many cut their links with their banners and took on Han-style names to avoid persecution. The official total of Manchus fell by more than half during this period, as they refused to admit their ethnicity when asked by government officials or other outsiders. On

6279-615: The Second Sino-Japanese War . The Japanese Ueda Kyōsuke labeled all 30 million people in Manchuria "Manchus", including Han Chinese, even though most of them were not ethnic Manchu, and the Japanese-written "Great Manchukuo" built upon Ueda's argument to claim that all 30 million "Manchus" in Manchukuo had the right to independence to justify splitting Manchukuo from China. In 1942, the Japanese-written "Ten Year History of

6440-638: The Stanovoy Mountains and the Argun River . When the Qing sent officials to erect boundary markers, the markers were set up far to the south of the agreed limits, ignoring some 23,000 square miles of territory. In 1809, the Japanese government sent explorer Mamiya Rinzō to Sakhalin and the region of the Amur to determine the extent of Russian influence and penetration. To preserve the Manchu character of Manchuria,

6601-400: The intestine . The intestine is typically long and coiled, and loops through the body three times before terminating in a cloacal chamber, or directly as the anus . Sea cucumbers have no true brain . A ring of neural tissue surrounds the oral cavity, and sends nerves to the tentacles and the pharynx . The animal is, however, quite capable of functioning and moving about if the nerve ring

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6762-551: The sea floor worldwide. The number of known holothurian ( / ˌ h ɒ l ə ˈ θj ʊər i ə n , ˌ h oʊ l ə -/ HOL -ə- THURE -ee-ən, HOH -lə- ) species worldwide is about 1,786, with the greatest number being in the Asia–Pacific region. Many of these are gathered for human consumption , and some species are cultivated in aquaculture systems. The harvested product is variously referred to as trepang , namako , bêche-de-mer , or balate . Sea cucumbers serve

6923-721: The "New Manchu" Warka foragers in Ningguta and attempted to turn them into normal agricultural farmers but then the Warka just reverted to hunter gathering and requested money to buy cattle for beef broth. The Qing wanted the Warka to become soldier-farmers and imposed this on them but the Warka simply left their garrison at Ningguta and went back to the Sungari river to their homes to herd, fish and hunt. The Qing accused them of desertion. 建州毛憐則渤海大氏遺孽，樂住種，善緝紡，飲食服用，皆如華人，自長白山迤南，可拊而治也。 "The (people of) Chien-chou and Mao-lin [YLSL always reads Mao-lien] are

7084-420: The 10th century AD, the term Jurchen first appeared in documents of the late Tang dynasty in reference to the state of Balhae in present-day northeastern China. The Jurchens were sedentary, settled farmers with advanced agriculture. They farmed grain and millet as their cereal crops, grew flax, and raised oxen, pigs, sheep and horses. Their farming way of life was very different from the pastoral nomadism of

7245-499: The 1120s. It was mainly derived from the Khitan script . In 1206, the Mongols , vassals to the Jurchens, rose in Mongolia. Their leader, Genghis Khan , led Mongol troops against the Jurchens, who were finally defeated by Ögedei Khan in 1234. The Jurchen Jin emperor Wanyan Yongji 's daughter, Jurchen Princess Qiguo was married to Mongol leader Genghis Khan in exchange for relieving

7406-497: The 1690s and 18th century. In the 1720s Jingzhou, Hangzhou and Nanjing Manchu banner garrisons fought in Tibet. For the over 200 years they lived next to each other, Han civilians and Manchu bannermen in Xi'an did not intermarry with each other at all. In a book published in 1911 American sociologist Edward Alsworth Ross wrote of his visit to Xi'an just before the Xinhai revolution:"In Sianfu

7567-503: The 1850s, large numbers of Manchu bannermen were sent to central China to fight the Taiping rebels . (For example, just the Heilongjiang province – which at the time included only the northern part of today's Heilongjiang – contributed 67,730 bannermen to the campaign, of whom only 10–20% survived). Those few who returned were demoralized and often disposed to opium addiction. In 1860, in

7728-496: The 1980s, thirteen Manchu autonomous counties have been created in Liaoning, Jilin, Hebei, and Heilongjiang. Sea cucumber Sea cucumbers are echinoderms from the class Holothuroidea ( / ˌ h ɒ l ə ˌ θj ʊəˈr ɔɪ d i ə , ˌ h oʊ l ə -/ HOL -ə-thyuu- ROY -dee-ə, HOH -lə- ). They are marine animals with a leathery skin and an elongated body containing a single, branched gonad . They are found on

7889-524: The Chinese people too, and we once more remind them of what they have been told ever since the great October revolution of 1917, but which was perhaps concealed from them by the venal press of America, Europe, and Japan. But the Chinese people, the Chinese workers and peasants, could not even learn the truth, could not find out the reason for this invasion by the American, European, and Japanese robbers of Manchuria and Siberia. The Soviet Government has renounced

8050-512: The Chinese. The Qing dynasty carefully hid the two original editions of the books of " Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu " and the " Manzhou Shilu Tu " (Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin-Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty. In the Ming period, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen inhabited lands north of

8211-549: The Construction of Manchukuo" attempted to emphasize the right of ethnic Japanese to the land of Manchukuo while attempting to delegitimize the Manchus' claim to Manchukuo as their native land, noting that most Manchus moved out during the Qing dynasty and only returned later. In 1952, after the failure of both Manchukuo and the Nationalist Government ( KMT ), the newborn People's Republic of China officially recognized

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8372-1233: The Eight Banner system at all during the Qing dynasty. The surname Nianhan (粘罕), shortened to Nian ( 粘 ) is a Jurchen origin surname, also originating from one of the members of the royal Wanyan clan. It is an extremely rare surname in China, and 1,100 members of the Nian clan live in Nan'an, Quanzhou, they live in Licheng district of Quanzhou, 900 in Jinjiang, Quanzhou, 40 in Shishi city of Quanzhou, and 500 in Quanzhou city itself in Fujian, and just over 100 people in Xiamen, Jin'an district of Fuzhou, Zhangpu and Sanming, as well as 1000 in Laiyang, Shandong, and 1,000 in Kongqiao and Wujiazhuang in Xingtai, Hebei. Some of

8533-491: The Eight Banners, initially capped to 4 then growing to 8 with three different types of ethnic banners as Han, Mongol and Jurchen were recruited into Nurhaci's forces. Jurchens like Nurhaci spoke both their native Tungusic language and Chinese, adopting the Mongol script for their own language unlike the Jin Jurchen's Khitan derived script. They adopted Confucian values and practiced their shamanist traditions. The Qing stationed

8694-695: The Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on Qing lists of Manchu clans . The Fushun Nikan became Manchufied and the originally Han banner families of Wang Shixuan, Cai Yurong, Zu Dashou, Li Yongfang, Shi Tingzhu and Shang Kexi intermarried extensively with Manchu families. A Manchu Bannerman in Guangzhou called Hequan illegally adopted

8855-554: The History of Ming because of this. In 1644, the Ming capital, Beijing , was sacked by a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng , a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt, who then proclaimed the establishment of the Shun dynasty . The last Ming ruler, the Chongzhen Emperor , died by suicide by hanging himself when the city fell. When Li Zicheng moved against

9016-512: The Jianzhou Jurchens' culture. Although Manchus practiced equestrianism and archery on horseback, their immediate progenitors practiced sedentary agriculture. The Manchus also partook in hunting but were sedentary. Their primary mode of production was farming while they lived in villages, forts, and walled towns. Their Jurchen Jin predecessors also practiced farming. Only the Mongols and the northern "wild" Jurchen were semi-nomadic, unlike

9177-401: The Jurchen script was officially abandoned. More Jurchens adopted Mongolian as their writing language and fewer used Chinese. The final recorded Jurchen writing dates to 1526. The Manchus are sometimes mistakenly identified as nomadic people. The Manchu way of life (economy) was agricultural, farming crops and raising animals on farms. Manchus practiced slash-and-burn agriculture in

9338-542: The Jurchens became vassals of the Khitan -led Liao dynasty . The Jurchens in the Yalu River region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of Wang Geon , who called upon them during the wars of the Later Three Kingdoms period, but the Jurchens switched allegiance between Liao and Goryeo multiple times, taking advantage of the tension between the two nations; posing a potential threat to Goryeo's border security,

9499-508: The Jurchens offered tribute to the Goryeo court, expecting lavish gifts in return. Before the Jurchens overthrew the Khitan, married Jurchen women and Jurchen girls were raped by Liao Khitan envoys as a custom which caused resentment. The Jurchens and their Manchu descendants had Khitan linguistic and grammatical elements in their personal names like suffixes. Many Khitan names had a "ju" suffix. In

9660-554: The Korean Sin Chung-il when it was very cold. These Jurchens who lived in the north-east's harsh cold climate sometimes half sunk their houses in the ground which they constructed of brick or timber and surrounded their fortified villages with stone foundations on which they built wattle and mud walls to defend against attack. Village clusters were ruled by beile, hereditary leaders. They fought each other's and dispensed weapons, wives, slaves and lands to their followers in them. This

9821-552: The Korean peninsula, above the rivers Yalu and Tumen to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China. The Qing deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, from the History of Ming to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. The Ming Veritable Records were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in

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9982-501: The Manchu as one of the ethnic minorities as Mao Zedong had criticized the Han chauvinism that dominated the KMT. In the 1953 census, 2.5 million people identified themselves as Manchu. The Communist government also attempted to improve the treatment of Manchu people; some Manchu people who had hidden their ancestry during the period of KMT rule became willing to reveal their ancestry, such as

10143-413: The Manchu banners which claimed to be descended from a Han Chinese with the surname of Tao who had moved north from Zhejiang to Liaodong and joined the Jurchens before the Qing in the Ming Wanli emperor's era. The Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin , using this false claim to get themselves transferred to

10304-431: The Manchu ruling elite at the Qing imperial court in Beijing and posts of authority throughout China increasingly adopted Han culture, the Qing imperial government viewed the Manchu communities (as well as those of various tribal people) in Manchuria as a place where traditional Manchu virtues could be preserved, and as a vital reservoir of military manpower fully dedicated to the regime. The Qing emperors tried to protect

10465-475: The Ming dynasty and moved the capital to Mukden after his conquest of Liaodong. In 1635, his son and successor Hong Taiji changed the name of the Jurchen ethnic group ( Manchu : ᠵᡠᡧᡝᠨ ,  Möllendorff : jušen ,  Abkai : juxen ) to the Manchu. A year later, Hong Taiji proclaimed himself the emperor of the Qing dynasty ( Manchu : ᡩᠠᡳᠴᡳᠩ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ,  Möllendorff : daicing gurun ,  Abkai : daiqing gurun ). Factors for

10626-465: The Ming dynasty, and passed this tradition on to the Manchus. It was prohibited in Jurchen culture to use dog skin, and forbidden for Jurchens to harm, kill, or eat dogs. For political reasons, the Jurchen leader Nurhaci chose variously to emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles with other peoples like the Mongols. Nurhaci said to the Mongols that "the languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life

10787-465: The Ming general Wu Sangui , the latter made an alliance with the Manchus and opened the Shanhai Pass to the Manchu army. After the Manchus defeated Li Zicheng , they moved the capital of their new Qing Empire to Beijing ( Manchu : ᠪᡝᡤᡳᠩ ,  Möllendorff : beging ,  Abkai : beging ) in the same year. The Qing government differentiated between Han Bannermen and ordinary Han civilians. Han Bannermen were Han Chinese who defected to

10948-495: The Ming government. They had to present tribute as secretariats ( 中書舍人 ) with less reward from the Ming court than in the time when they were heads of guards – an unpopular development. Subsequently, more and more Jurchens recognised the Ming Empire's declining power due to Esen's invasion. The Zhengtong Emperor's capture directly caused Jurchen guards to go out of control. Tribal leaders, such as Cungšan and Wang Gao , brazenly plundered Ming territory. At about this time,

11109-439: The Ming overtures, but was unsuccessful, and Möngke Temür submitted to the Ming Empire. Since then, more and more Jurchen tribes presented tribute to the Ming Empire in succession. The Ming divided them into 384 guards, and the Jurchen became vassals to the Ming Empire. During the Ming dynasty, the name for the Jurchen land was Nurgan . The Jurchens became part of the Ming dynasty's Nurgan Regional Military Commission under

11270-469: The Mongol commander Naghachu 's resisting forces who settled in the Haixi area and began to summon the Jurchen tribes to pay tribute. At the time, some Jurchen clans were vassals to the Joseon dynasty of Korea such as Odoli and Huligai . Their elites served in the Korean royal bodyguard. The Joseon Koreans tried to deal with the military threat posed by the Jurchen by using both forceful means and incentives, and by launching military attacks. At

11431-439: The Nian from Quanzhou immigrated to Taiwan, Singapore and Malaysia. In Taiwan they are concentrated in Lukang township and Changhua city of Changhua county as well as in Dingnien village, Xianne village Fuxing township of Changhua county. There are less than 30,000 members of the Nian clan worldwide, with 9,916 of them in Taiwan, and 3,040 of those in Fuxing township of Changhua county and its most common in Dingnian village. During

11592-610: The Odoli clan of the Jianzhou Jurchens , defected from paying tribute to Korea, becoming a tributary state to China instead. Yi Seong-gye , the Taejo of Joseon , asked the Ming Empire to send Möngke Temür back but was refused. The Yongle Emperor was determined to wrest the Jurchens out of Korean influence and have China dominate them instead. Korea tried to persuade Möngke Temür to reject

11753-639: The People's Republic of China relabelled eight cities and areas inside Russia in the region with Chinese names. The eight names are Boli for Khabarovsk , Hailanpao for Blagoveshchensk , Haishenwai (Haishenwei) for Vladivostok , Kuye for Sakhalin , Miaojie for Nikolayevsk-on-Amur , Nibuchu for Nerchinsk , Outer Khingan (Outer Xing'an) for Stanovoy Range , and Shuangchengzi for Ussuriysk . Manchu people The Manchus ( Manchu : ᠮᠠᠨᠵᡠ ,  Möllendorff : manju ; Chinese : 滿族 ; pinyin : Mǎnzú ; Wade–Giles : Man -tsu ) are

11914-509: The Qing Empire up to 1644 and joined the Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu culture. So many Han defected to the Qing Empire and swelled up the ranks of the Eight Banners that ethnic Manchus became a minority within the Banners, making up only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest. It

12075-560: The Qing dynasty discouraged Han Chinese settlement in Manchuria; nevertheless, there was significant Han Chinese migration into areas south of the Amur and west of the Ussuri. By the mid-19th century, there were very few subjects of the Qing Empire living in the areas north of the Amur and east of the Ussuri, and Qing authority in the area was seen as tenuous by the Russians. Despite warnings, Qing authorities remained indecisive about how to respond to

12236-500: The Qing dynasty's official historical record, the Researches on Manchu Origins , the ethnic name came from Mañjuśrī . The Qianlong Emperor also supported the point of view and even wrote several poems on the subject. Meng Sen, a scholar of the Qing dynasty, agreed. On the other hand, he thought the name Manchu might stem from Li Manzhu ( 李滿住 ), the chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens . Another scholar, Chang Shan, thinks Manju

12397-629: The Qing trying to document and systematize the creation of histories for Manchu clans, including manufacturing an entire legend around the origin of the Aisin-Gioro clan by taking mythology from the northeast. In 1603, Nurhaci gained recognition as the Sure Kundulen Khan ( Manchu : ᠰᡠᡵᡝ ᡴᡠᠨᡩᡠᠯᡝᠨ ᡥᠠᠨ ,  Möllendorff : sure kundulen han ,  Abkai : sure kundulen han , "wise and respected khan") from his Khalkha Mongol allies; then, in 1616, he publicly enthroned himself and issued

12558-500: The Russian presence. In 1856, Russian military entered the area north of the Amur on pretext of defending the area from France and the UK, Russian settlers founded new towns and cut down forests in the region, and the Russian government created a new maritime province, Primorskaya Oblast , including Sakhalin, the mouth of the Amur, and Kamchatka with its capital at Nikolayevsk-on-Amur . After losing

12719-487: The Russian state-run news agency issued an article entitled "Russia, China officially confirm renunciation of territorial claims, diplomat says." The article purported to cite Maria Zakharova, the spokesperson for the Russian Foreign Ministry. What Zakharova actually said was quite telling. She said, "We are confident that our friends in Beijing share the same position." This statement acknowledges some doubt as she

12880-403: The Russians , the Qing emperors started to realize the strategic importance of Manchuria and gradually sent Manchus back where they originally came from. But throughout the Qing dynasty, Beijing was the focal point of the ruling Manchus in the political, economic and cultural spheres. The Yongzheng Emperor noted: "Garrisons are the places of stationed works, Beijing is their homeland." While

13041-475: The South Pacific sea cucumbers may be found in densities of 40 individuals/m (3.7 individuals/sq ft). These populations can process 19 kilograms per square metre (3.9 lb/sq ft) of sediment per year. The shape of the tentacles is generally adapted to the diet, and to the size of the particles to be ingested: the filter-feeding species mostly have complex arborescent tentacles, intended to maximize

13202-532: The Soviet Union renamed several locations in the region that bore names of Chinese origin. Names affected included Partizansk for Suchan; Dalnegorsk for Tetyukhe; Rudnaya Pristan for Teyukhe‐Pristan; Dalnerechensk for Iman; Sibirtsevo for Mankovka; Gurskoye for Khungari; Cherenshany for Sinan cha; Rudny for Lifudzin; and Uglekamensk for Severny Suchan. On February 14, 2023, the Ministry of Natural Resources of

13363-712: The Soviet deputy minister (also called "commissar") of foreign affairs, issued two legally binding "declarations" called the Karakhan Manifestos in which he promised to return to China all territories taken in Siberia and Manchuria during the Tsarist period and to return the Chinese Eastern Railway and other concessions. He signed his name on both documents as deputy minister of foreign affairs. To date, China has never renounced

13524-612: The Tartar quarter is a dismal picture of crumbling walls, decay, indolence and squalor. On the big drill grounds you see the runways along which the horseman gallops and shoots arrows at a target while the Tartar military mandarins look on. These lazy bannermen were tried in the new army but proved flabby and good-for-nothing; they would break down on an ordinary twenty-mile march. Battening on their hereditary pensions they have given themselves up to sloth and vice, and their poor chest development, small weak muscles, and diminishing families foreshadow

13685-590: The Xi'an dialect of Mandarin. Many Bannermen got jobs as teachers, writing textbooks for learning Mandarin and instructing people in Mandarin. In Guangdong, the Manchu Mandarin teacher Sun Yizun advised that the Yinyun Chanwei and Kangxi Zidian , dictionaries issued by the Qing government, were the correct guides to Mandarin pronunciation, rather than the pronunciation of the Beijing and Nanjing dialects. In

13846-761: The Yongle Emperor, with Ming forces erecting the Yongning Temple Stele in 1413, at the headquarters of Nurgan. The stele was inscribed in Chinese, Jurchen, Mongolian, and Tibetan. In 1449, Mongol taishi Esen attacked the Ming Empire and captured the Zhengtong Emperor in Tumu . Some Jurchen guards in Jianzhou and Haixi cooperated with Esen's action, but more were attacked in the Mongol invasion. Many Jurchen chieftains lost their hereditary certificates granted by

14007-505: The Yuan directive to treat Jurchens the same as Mongols referred to Jurchens and Khitans in the northwest (not the Jurchen homeland in the northeast), presumably in the lands of Qara Khitai, where many Khitan live but it is a mystery as to how Jurchens were living there. Many Jurchens adopted Mongolian customs, names, and the Mongolian language. As time went on, fewer and fewer Jurchens could recognize their own script. The Jurchen Yehe Nara clan

14168-434: The abyssal genus Scotoplanes . Echinoderms typically possess an internal skeleton composed of plates of calcium carbonate . In most sea cucumbers, however, these have become reduced to microscopic ossicles embedded beneath the skin. A few genera, such as Sphaerothuria , retain relatively large plates, giving them a scaly armour. Sea cucumbers can be found in great numbers on the deep seafloor, where they often make up

14329-413: The aftermath of the loss of Outer Manchuria , and with the imperial and provincial governments in deep financial trouble, parts of Manchuria became officially open to Chinese settlement ; within a few decades, the Manchus became a minority in most of Manchuria's districts. The majority of the hundreds of thousands of people living in inner Beijing during the Qing were Manchus and Mongol bannermen from

14490-703: The ancient Manchu domination in English-language toponyms : for example, the Sikhote-Alin , the great coastal range; the Khanka Lake ; the Amur and Ussuri rivers; the Greater Khingan , Lesser Khingan and other small mountain ranges; and the Shantar Islands . Evenks , a non-Manchu Tungusic people, who speak a closely related Tungusic language , make up a significant part of the indigenous population. In 1973,

14651-443: The animal to elongate and the introvert to extend. Anterior to the ossicles lie further muscles, contraction of which cause the introvert to retract. The body wall consists of an epidermis and a dermis and contains smaller calcareous ossicles, the types of which are characteristics which help to identify different species. Inside the body wall is the coelom which is divided by three longitudinal mesenteries which surround and support

14812-432: The animals able to control their own buoyancy, making it possible for them to either live on the ocean floor or to actively swim or float over it in order to move to new locations, in a manner similar to how the group Torquaratoridae floats through water. Holothurians appear to be the echinoderms best adapted to extreme depths, and are still very diversified beyond 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) deep: several species from

14973-555: The anus from the water), and to develop into their adult stage of life. Many polychaete worms (family Polynoidae ) and crabs (like Lissocarcinus orbicularis ) have also specialized to use the mouth or the cloacal respiratory trees for protection by living inside the sea cucumber. Nevertheless, holothurians species of the genus Actinopyga have anal teeth that prevent visitors from penetrating their anus. Sea cucumbers can also shelter bivalvia as endocommensals, such as Entovalva sp . Sea cucumbers are often ignored by most of

15134-416: The anus, corresponds to the aboral pole. Thus, compared with other echinoderms, sea cucumbers can be said to be lying on their side. The body of a holothurian is roughly cylindrical. It is radially symmetrical along its longitudinal axis, and has weak bilateral symmetry transversely with a dorsal and a ventral surface. As in other Echinozoans , there are five ambulacra separated by five ambulacral grooves,

15295-415: The areas north of Shenyang . The Haixi Jurchens were "semi-agricultural, the Jianzhou Jurchens and Maolian ( 毛憐 ) Jurchens were sedentary, while hunting and fishing was the way of life of the "Wild Jurchens". Han Chinese society resembled that of the sedentary Jianzhou and Maolian, who were farmers. Hunting, archery on horseback, horsemanship, livestock raising, and sedentary agriculture were all part of

15456-427: The body from the mouth to the anus. The three on the lower surface have numerous tube feet , often with suckers, that allow the animal to crawl along; they are called trivium . The two on the upper surface have under-developed or vestigial tube feet, and some species lack tube feet altogether; this face is called bivium . In some species, the ambulacral areas can no longer be distinguished, with tube feet spread over

15617-547: The capital garrison in Beijing were said to be the worst militarily, unable to draw bows, unable to ride horses and fight properly and losing their Manchu culture. Manchu bannermen from the Xi'an banner garrison were praised for maintaining Manchu culture by Kangxi in 1703. Xi'an garrison Manchus were said to retain Manchu culture far better than all other Manchus at martial skills in the provincial garrisons and they were able to draw their bows properly and perform cavalry archery unlike Beijing Manchus. The Qianlong emperor received

15778-429: The change of name of these people from Jurchen to Manchu include the fact that the term "Jurchen" had negative connotations since the Jurchens had been in a servile position to the Ming dynasty for several hundred years, and it also referred to people of the "dependent class". The change of the name from Jurchen to Manchu was made to hide the fact that the ancestors of the Manchus, the Jianzhou Jurchens, had been ruled by

15939-524: The chaos started in the Jurchen lands, Nurhaci , a chieftain of the Jianzhou Left Guard who officially considered himself a local representative of imperial power of the Ming dynasty , made efforts to unify the Jurchen tribes and established a military system called the " Eight Banners ", which organized Jurchen soldiers into groups of "Bannermen", and ordered his scholar Erdeni and minister Gagai to create

16100-508: The city and gained bad reputations for their sexual lives. A Manchu from Beijing, Sumurji, was shocked and disgusted by this after being appointed Lieutenant general of the Manchu garrison of Xi'an and informed the Yongzheng emperor what they were doing. Han civilians and Manchu bannermen in Xi'an had bad relations, with the bannermen trying to steal at the markets. Manchu Lieutenant general Cimbru reported this to Yongzheng emperor in 1729 after he

16261-466: The classic sausage-shape, while others resemble caterpillars. The mouth is surrounded by tentacles, which can be pulled back inside the animal. Holothurians measure generally between 10 and 30 centimetres (3.9 and 11.8 in) long, with extremes of some millimetres for Rhabdomolgus ruber and up to more than 3 metres (9.8 ft) for Synapta maculata . The largest American species, Holothuria floridana , which abounds just below low-water mark on

16422-551: The conquests made by the Tsarist Government which deprived China of Manchuria and other areas....The Soviet Government is well aware ... that the return to the Chinese people of what was taken from them requires first of all putting an end to the robber invasion of Manchuria and Siberia. The Karakhan Manifestos I and II are similar. Both promise to return "the conquests made by the Tsarist Government which deprived China of Manchuria and other areas." Today, there are reminders of

16583-452: The descendants of the family Ta of Po-hai . They love to be sedentary and sew, and they are skilled in spinning and weaving. As for food, clothing and utensils, they are the same as (those used by) the Chinese. Those living south of the Ch'ang-pai mountain are apt to be soothed and governed." Although their Mohe ancestors did not respect dogs, the Jurchens began to respect dogs around the time of

16744-647: The director of the Institute of History, Archaeology and Ethnography of the Peoples of the Far East in Vladivostok , said that the fact that Russia had built Vladivostok “is a historical fact that cannot be rewritten,” and that the notion that Vladivostok was ever a Chinese town is a “myth” based on a misreading of evidence that a few Chinese sometimes came to the area to fish and collect sea cucumbers . The main point of Viktor Larin

16905-476: The dynasty. At the beginning of the Qing dynasty, the Qing allowed Han civilians to marry Manchu women. Then the Qing banned civilians from marrying women from the Eight banners later. In 1865, the Qing allowed Han civilian men to marry Manchu bannerwomen in all garrisons except the capital garrison of Beijing. There was no formal law on marriage between people in the different banners like the Manchu and Han banners but it

17066-464: The early dying out of the stock. Where is there a better illustration of the truth that parasitism leads to degeneration!" Ross spoke highly of the Han and Hui population of Xi'an, Shaanxi and Gansu in general, saying: "After a fortnight of mule litter we sight ancient yellow Sianfu, "the Western capital," with its third of a million souls. Within the fortified triple gate the facial mold abruptly changes and

17227-430: The extremities opens a rounded mouth, generally surrounded with a crown of tentacles which can be very complex in some species (they are in fact modified podia); the anus is postero-dorsal. Holothurians do not look like other echinoderms at first glance, because of their tubular body, without visible skeleton nor hard appendixes. Furthermore, the fivefold symmetry, classical for echinoderms, although preserved structurally,

17388-426: The family Elpidiidae ("sea pigs") can be found deeper than 9,500 metres (31,200 ft), and the record seems to be some species of the genus Myriotrochus (in particular Myriotrochus bruuni ), identified down to 10,687 metres (35,062 ft) deep. In more shallow waters, sea cucumbers can form dense populations. The strawberry sea cucumber ( Squamocnus brevidentis ) of New Zealand lives on rocky walls around

17549-542: The fighting during the First Sino-Japanese War and the Boxer Rebellion, sustaining massive casualties during the wars and subsequently being driven into extreme suffering and hardship. Much of the fighting in the Boxer Rebellion against the foreigners in defense of Beijing and Manchuria was done by Manchu Banner armies, which were destroyed while resisting the invasion. The German Minister Clemens von Ketteler

17710-402: The interambulacra. The ambulacral grooves bear four rows of tube feet but these are diminished in size or absent in some holothurians, especially on the dorsal surface. The two dorsal ambulacra make up the bivium while the three ventral ones are known as the trivium. At the anterior end, the mouth is surrounded by a ring of tentacles which are usually retractable into the mouth. These are called

17871-430: The internal organs. A pharynx lies behind the mouth and is surrounded by a ring of ten calcareous plates. In most sea cucumbers, this is the only substantial part of the skeleton, and it forms the point of attachment for muscles that can retract the tentacles into the body for safety as for the main muscles of the body wall. Many species possess an oesophagus and stomach , but in some the pharynx opens directly into

18032-574: The largest branch of the Tungusic peoples and are distributed throughout China, forming the fourth largest ethnic group in the country. They are found in 31 Chinese provincial regions. Among them, Liaoning has the largest population and Hebei , Heilongjiang , Jilin , Inner Mongolia and Beijing have over 100,000 Manchu residents. About half of the population live in Liaoning and one-fifth in Hebei . There are

18193-402: The late 19th century and early 1900s, intermarriage between Manchus and Han bannermen in the northeast increased as Manchu families were more willing to marry their daughters to sons from well off Han families to trade their ethnic status for higher financial status. Most intermarriage consisted of Han Bannermen marrying Manchus in areas like Aihun. Han Chinese Bannermen wedded Manchus and there

18354-516: The local dialect instead of Standard Chinese. By the early years of the Republic of China , very few areas of China still had traditional Manchu populations. Among the few regions where such comparatively traditional communities could be found, and where the Manchu language was still widely spoken, were the Aigun ( Manchu : ᠠᡳᡥᡡᠨ ,  Möllendorff : aihūn ,  Abkai : aihvn ) District and

18515-405: The locomotive tube feet. Depending on the species, sea cucumbers have between ten and thirty such tentacles and these can have a wide variety of shapes depending on the diet of the animal and other conditions. Many sea cucumbers have papillae, conical fleshy projections of the body wall with sensory tube feet at their apices. These can even evolve into long antennae-like structures, especially on

18676-474: The mainstream Jiahnzhou Jurchens descended from the Jin dynasty who were farmers that foraged, hunted, herded and harvested crops in the Liao and Yalu river basins. They gathered ginseng root, pine nuts, hunted for came pels in the uplands and forests, raised horses in their stables, and farmed millet and wheat in their fallow fields. They engaged in dances, wrestling and drinking strong liquor as noted during midwinter by

18837-448: The majority of the animal biomass. At depths deeper than 8,900 m (5.5 mi), sea cucumbers comprise 90% of the total mass of the macrofauna. Sea cucumbers form large herds that move across the bathygraphic features of the ocean, hunting food. The body of some deep water holothurians, such as Enypniastes eximia , Peniagone leander and Paelopatides confundens , is made of a tough gelatinous tissue with unique properties that makes

18998-687: The marine predators because of the toxins they contain (in particular holothurin ) and because of their often spectacular defensive systems. However, they remain a prey for some highly specialized predators which are not affected by their toxins, such as the big mollusks Tonna galea and Tonna perdix , which paralyzes them using powerful poison before swallowing them completely. Some other less specialized and opportunist predators can also prey on sea cucumbers sometimes when they cannot find any better food, such as certain species of fish ( triggerfish , pufferfish ) and crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, hermit crabs ). Some species of coral-reef sea cucumbers within

19159-595: The modern-day Russian areas of Primorsky Krai , southern Khabarovsk Krai , the Jewish Autonomous Oblast , the Amur Oblast and the island of Sakhalin . The northern part of the area was disputed by Qing China and the Russian Empire, in the midst of the Russia's Far East expansion , between 1643 and 1689. The Treaty of Nerchinsk signed in 1689 after a series of conflicts, defined the Sino–Russian border as

19320-477: The nervous system and coordinated with muscle activity. Different echinoderm classes use MCTs in different ways. The asteroids, sea stars, can detach limbs for self-defense and then regenerate them. The Crinoidea, sea fans, can go from stiff to limp depending on the current for optimal filter feeding. The Echinoidea, sand dollars, use MCTs to grow and replace their rows of teeth when they need new ones. The Holothuroidea, sea cucumbers, use MCTs to eviscerate their gut as

19481-450: The ocean floor. Most of them have specific swimming appendages, such as some kind of umbrella (like Enypniastes ), or a long lobe on top of the body ( Psychropotes ). Only one species is known as a true completely pelagic species, that never comes close to the bottom: Pelagothuria natatrix . Holothuroidea are generally scavengers , feeding on debris in the benthic zone of the ocean. Exceptions include some pelagic cucumbers and

19642-449: The offer of the two Karakhan Manifestos. During 1991 and 2004, there were border-treaties between Russia and China. The Karakhan Manifestos are not border treaties. They are unilateral, but legally binding offers of the return of territory to China. Here are three excerpts from the first Karakhan Manifesto (I) according to the translated, English version published by Allen S. Whiting: We bring help not only to our own labouring classes, but to

19803-416: The official name of the people by Emperor Hong Taiji in 1635, replacing the earlier name " Jurchen ". It appears that manju was an old term for the Jianzhou Jurchens , although the etymology is not well understood. The Jiu Manzhou Dang , archives of early 17th century documents, contains the earliest use of Manchu. However, the actual etymology of the ethnic name "Manju" is debatable. According to

19964-425: The order Aspidochirotida can defend themselves by expelling their sticky cuvierian tubules (enlargements of the respiratory tree that float freely in the coelom ) to entangle potential predators. When startled, these cucumbers may expel some of them through a tear in the wall of the cloaca in an autotomic process known as evisceration . Replacement tubules grow back in one and a half to five weeks, depending on

20125-532: The other hand, in warlord Zhang Zuolin 's reign in Manchuria, much better treatment was reported. There was no particular persecution of Manchus. Even the mausoleums of Qing emperors were still allowed to be managed by Manchu guardsmen, as in the past. Many Manchus joined the Fengtian clique , such as Xi Qia , a member of the Qing dynasty's imperial clan. As a follow-up to the Mukden Incident , Manchukuo ,

20286-500: The phylum Echinodermata. This is one of the most distinctive and diverse phyla, ranging from starfish to urchins to sea cucumbers and many other organisms. The echinoderms are mainly distinguished from other phyla by their body plan and organization. The earliest sea cucumbers are known from the middle Ordovician , over 450 million years ago. The apodida is the sister group to the other orders of sea cucumbers. All echinoderms share three main characteristics. When mature, echinoderms have

20447-451: The pouch as a juvenile sea cucumber. A few species are known to brood their young inside the body cavity, giving birth through a small rupture in the body wall close to the anus. In all other species, the egg develops into a free-swimming larva , typically after around three days of development. The first stage of larval development is known as an auricularia , and is only around 1 mm (39 mils ) in length. This larva swims by means of

20608-486: The presence of light. There are, however, a few exceptions: members of the Apodida order are known to possess statocysts , while some species possess small eye-spots near the bases of their tentacles. Sea cucumbers extract oxygen from water in a pair of "respiratory trees" that branch in the cloaca just inside the anus , so that they "breathe" by drawing water in through the anus and then expelling it. The trees consist of

20769-463: The presence or the shape of certain soft parts (podia, lungs, tentacles, peripharingal crown) to determine the main orders, and secondarily on the microscopic examination of ossicles to determine the genus and the species. Contemporary genetic methods have been helpful in clarifying their classification. Taxonomic classification according to World Register of Marine Species : To supply the markets of Southern China , Makassar trepangers traded with

20930-448: The primary tentacles and were present in the common ancestor of echinoderms, but have been lost in all the other classes of the phylum, and may be simple, branched or arborescent. They are known as the introvert and posterior to them there is an internal ring of large calcareous ossicles. Attached to this are five bands of muscle running internally longitudinally along the ambulacra. There are also circular muscles, contraction of which cause

21091-400: The radial canals beneath the ambulacral areas. In the larger species, additional vessels run above and below the intestine and are connected by over a hundred small muscular ampullae, acting as miniature hearts to pump blood around the haemal system. Additional vessels surround the respiratory trees, although they contact them only indirectly, via the coelomic fluid . Indeed, the blood itself

21252-439: The refined intellectual type appears. Here and there faces of a Hellenic purity of feature are seen and beautiful children are not uncommon. These Chinese cities make one realize how the cream of the population gathers in the urban centers. Everywhere town opportunities have been a magnet for the élite of the open country." The Qing dynasty altered its law on intermarriage between Han civilians and Manchu bannermen several times in

21413-583: The region's products, which resulted in a continuous trickle of Han convicts, workers, and merchants to the northeast. Han Chinese transfrontiersmen and other non-Jurchen origin people who joined the Later Jin very early were put into the Manchu Banners and were known as "Baisin" in Manchu, and not put into the Han Banners to which later Han Chinese were placed in. An example was the Tokoro Manchu clan in

21574-487: The same time they tried to appease them with titles and degrees, traded with them, and sought to acculturate them by having Jurchens integrate into Korean culture. Their relationship was eventually stopped by the Ming dynasty government who wanted the Jurchens to protect the border. In 1403, Ahacu, chieftain of Huligai, paid tribute to the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty. Soon after that, Möngke Temür , chieftain of

21735-403: The side of their axes. While echinoderms are invertebrates, meaning they do not have a spine, they do all have an endoskeleton that is secreted by the mesenchyme . This endoskeleton is composed of plates called ossicles. They are always internal but may only be covered by a thin epidermal layer like in sea urchin's spines. In the sea cucumber the ossicles are only found in the dermis, making them

21896-412: The skeleton is absent and there is no calcareous ring. Sea cucumbers are named for their resemblance to the fruit of the cucumber plant. Most sea cucumbers have a soft and cylindrical body, rounded off and occasionally fat in the extremities, and generally without solid appendages. Their shape ranges from almost spherical for "sea apples" (genus Pseudocolochirus ) to serpent-like for Apodida or

22057-423: The smallest known species are just 3 mm (0.12 in) long, and the largest can reach 3 meters (10 ft). The body ranges from almost spherical to worm-like, and lacks the arms found in many other echinoderms, such as starfish . The anterior end of the animal, containing the mouth, corresponds to the oral pole of other echinoderms (which, in most cases, is the underside), while the posterior end, containing

22218-579: The southern coast of the South Island where populations sometimes reach densities of 1,000 animals/m (93 animals/sq ft). For this reason, one such area in Fiordland is called the strawberry fields. Some abyssal species in the abyssal order Elasipodida have evolved to a "benthopelagic" behaviour: their body is nearly the same density as the water around them, so they can make long jumps (up to 1,000 metres or 3,300 feet high), before falling slowly back to

22379-545: The species Rynkatorpa pawsoni , which has a commensal relationship with deep-sea anglerfish . The diet of most cucumbers consists of plankton and decaying organic matter found in the sea. Some sea cucumbers position themselves in currents and catch food that flows by with their open tentacles. They also sift through the bottom sediments using their tentacles. Other species can dig into bottom silt or sand until they are completely buried. They then extrude their feeding tentacles, ready to withdraw at any hint of danger. In

22540-675: The species. The release of these tubules can also be accompanied by the discharge of a toxic chemical known as holothurin , which has similar properties to soap. This chemical can kill animals in the vicinity and is one more method by which these sedentary animals can defend themselves. If the water temperature becomes too high, some species of sea cucumber from temperate seas can aestivate . While they are in this state of dormancy they stop feeding, their gut atrophies, their metabolism slows down and they lose weight. The body returns to its normal state when conditions improve. Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) are one of five extant classes that make up

22701-522: The subclasses is by looking at their oral tentacles. Order Apodida have a slender and elongate body lacking tube feet, with up to 25 simple or pinnate oral tentacles. Aspidochirotida are the most common sea cucumbers encountered, with a strong body and 10–30 leaflike or shield-like oral tentacles. Dendrochirotida are filter-feeders, with plump bodies and 8–30 branched oral tentacles (which can be extremely long and complex). Sea cucumbers are typically 10 to 30 cm (4 to 12 in) in length, although

22862-428: The surface area available for filtering, while the species feeding on the substratum will more often need digitate tentacles to sort out the nutritional material; the detritivore species living on fine sand or mud more often need shorter "peltate" tentacles, shaped like shovels. A single specimen can swallow more than 45 kilograms (99 lb) of sediment a year, and their excellent digestive capacities allow them to reject

23023-451: The tegument of holothurians, in particular several species of the genus Periclimenes (genus which is specialized in echinoderms), in particular Periclimenes imperator . A variety of fish, most commonly pearl fish , have evolved a commensalistic symbiotic relationship with sea cucumbers in which the pearl fish will live in sea cucumber's cloaca using it for protection from predation, a source of food (the nutrients passing in and out of

23184-414: The term Han. However the use of the word Han as the name of a class category used by the Yuan dynasty was a different concept from Han ethnicity. The grouping of Jurchens in northern China grouped with northern Han into the northerner class did not mean they were regarded the same as ethnic Han people, who themselves were in two different classes in the Yuan, Han ren and Nan Ren as said by Stephen G. Haw. Also

23345-429: The traditional way of life of the Manchus (as well as various other tribal peoples) in central and northern Manchuria by a variety of means. In particular, they restricted the migration of Han settlers to the region. This had to be balanced with practical needs, such as maintaining the defense of northern China against the Russians and the Mongols, supplying government farms with a skilled work force, and conducting trade in

23506-472: The transition between the Ming and Qing Zhang Sunzhen, a civilian official in Nanjing himself remarked that he had a portrait of his ancestors wearing Manchu clothes because his family were Tartars so it was appropriate that he was going to shave his head into the Manchu hairstyle when the queue order was given. The Mongol-led Yuan dynasty was replaced by the Ming dynasty in 1368. In 1387, Ming forces defeated

23667-513: The two ethnic groups. Also to promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree from the Shunzhi Emperor allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners or the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. It was only later in the dynasty that these policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. As

23828-412: The unification of Manchu tribes as a threat to Japan. The Japanese mistakenly thought that Hokkaido (Ezochi) had a land bridge to Tartary (Orankai) where Manchus lived and thought the Manchus could invade Japan. The Tokugawa Shogunate bakufu sent a message to Korea via Tsushima offering help to Korea against the 1627 Manchu invasion of Korea . Korea declined the help. Following the fall of Balhae,

23989-602: The view that manju is cognate with words referring to the lower Amur river in other Tungusic languages and can be reconstructed to Proto-Tungusic *mamgo 'lower Amur, large river'. The Manchus are descended from the Jurchen people who earlier established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in China. The name Mohe might refer to an ancestral population of the Manchus. The Mohe practiced pig farming extensively and were mainly sedentary, and also used both pig and dog skins for coats. They were predominantly farmers and grew soybeans, wheat, millet and rice, in addition to hunting. In

24150-401: The writer Lao She , who began to include Manchu characters in his fictional works in the 1950s. Between 1982 and 1990, the official count of Manchu people more than doubled from 4,299,159 to 9,821,180, making them China's fastest-growing ethnic minority, but this growth was only on paper, as this was due to people formerly registered as Han applying for official recognition as Manchu. Since

24311-505: The year 1114, Wanyan Aguda united the Jurchen tribes and established the Jin dynasty (1115–1234) . His brother and successor, Wanyan Wuqimai defeated the Liao dynasty. After the fall of the Liao dynasty, the Jurchens went to war with the Northern Song dynasty , and captured most of northern China in the Jin–Song wars . During the Jin dynasty, the first Jurchen script came into use in

24472-423: Was "confident," but not completely sure. Zakharova also threw in some disparaging comments about Lai (referring to him as a "fringe politician"). Despite the potential for territorial claims coextensive with the Qing dynasty, Chinese leaders as of 2014 had not suggested that Mongolia and part of Outer or Russian Manchuria would be a legitimate objective. In April 2023, US diplomat John Bolton speculated that China

24633-690: Was assassinated by a Manchu. Thousands of Manchus fled south from Aigun during the fighting in the Boxer Rebellion in 1900, their cattle and horses then stolen by Russian Cossacks who razed their villages and homes. The clan system of the Manchus in Aigun was obliterated by the despoliation of the area at the hands of the Russian invaders. By the 19th century, most Manchus in the city garrison spoke only Mandarin Chinese, not Manchu, which still distinguished them from their Han neighbors in southern China, who spoke non-Mandarin dialects. That they spoke Beijing dialect made recognizing Manchus folks relatively easy. It

24794-564: Was assigned there. Governor Yue Rui of Shandong was then ordered by the Yongzheng to report any bannerman misbehaving and warned him not to cover it up in 1730 after Manchu bannermen were put in a quarter in Qingzhou. Manchu bannermen from the garrisons in Xi'an and Jingzhou fought in Xinjiang in the 1770s and Manchus from Xi'an garrison fought in other campaigns against the Dzungars and Uyghurs throughout

24955-449: Was copied down . Traumatic memories of the Jurchen raids on Japan in the 1019 Toi invasion , the Mongol invasions of Japan in addition to Japan viewing the Jurchens as "Tatar" "barbarians" after copying China's barbarian-civilized distinction, may have played a role in Japan's antagonistic views against Manchus and hostility towards them in later centuries such as when Tokugawa Ieyasu viewed

25116-560: Was how the Jurchens who founded the Qing lived and how their ancestors lived before the Jin. Alongside Mongols and Jurchen clans there were migrants from Liaodong provinces of Ming China and Korea living among these Jurchens in a cosmopolitan manner. Nurhaci who was hosting Sin Chung-il was uniting all of them into his own army, having them adopt the Jurchen hairstyle of a long queue and a shaved fore=crown and wearing leather tunics. His armies had black, blue, red, white and yellow flags. These became

25277-401: Was informally regulated by social status and custom. In northeastern China such as Heilongjiang and Liaoning it was more common for Manchu women to marry Han men since they were not subjected to the same laws and institutional oversight as Manchus and Han in Beijing and elsewhere. The policy of artificially isolating the Manchus of the northeast from the rest of China could not last forever. In

25438-564: Was no law against this. As the end of the Qing dynasty approached, Manchus were portrayed as outside colonizers by Chinese nationalists such as Sun Yat-sen , even though the Republican revolution he brought about was supported by many reform-minded Manchu officials and military officers. This portrayal dissipated somewhat after the 1911 revolution as the new Republic of China now sought to include Manchus within its national identity . In order to blend in, some Manchus switched to speaking

25599-459: Was northern Standard Chinese which the Manchu Bannermen spoke instead of the local dialect the Han people around the garrison spoke, so that Manchus in the garrisons at Jingzhou and Guangzhou both spoke Beijing Mandarin even though Cantonese was spoken at Guangzhou, and the Beijing dialect of Mandarin distinguished the Manchu bannermen at the Xi'an garrison from the local Han people who spoke

25760-692: Was that the Russian Far East (outer Manchuria) is Russia's. They developed the region and thus, will not give it back. Larin was a state historian and ethnographer. He would not stray from the government "line." Sergey Radchenko, speaking for China's government stated, "China fully recognizes Russia's sovereignty over these territories [referring to the Russian Far East]." He also called Taiwan's President Lai, "seriously misguided" for attempting to suggest to China to take back her "lost territories," rather than invade Taiwan. The next day, Sept. 3, 2024, TASS,

25921-408: Was this multi-ethnic, majority Han force in which Manchus were a minority, which conquered China for the Qing Empire. A mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women was organized to balance the massive number of Han women who entered the Manchu court as courtesans, concubines, and wives. These couples were arranged by Prince Yoto and Hong Taiji in 1632 to promote harmony between

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