70-496: Amoebozoa is a major taxonomic group containing about 2,400 described species of amoeboid protists , often possessing blunt, fingerlike, lobose pseudopods and tubular mitochondrial cristae . In traditional classification schemes, Amoebozoa is usually ranked as a phylum within either the kingdom Protista or the kingdom Protozoa . In the classification favored by the International Society of Protistologists, it
140-410: A "monopodial" form, with the entire cell functioning as a single pseudopod. Large pseudopods may produce numerous clear projections called subpseudopodia (or determinate pseudopodia ), which are extended to a certain length and then retracted, either for the purpose of locomotion or food intake. A cell may also form multiple indeterminate pseudopodia, through which the entire contents of the cell flow in
210-469: A basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress
280-552: A chaotic and disorganized taxonomic literature. He not only introduced the standard of class, order, genus, and species, but also made it possible to identify plants and animals from his book, by using the smaller parts of the flower (known as the Linnaean system ). Plant and animal taxonomists regard Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively). Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and not considered valid (with
350-513: A cone of microtubules, suggesting a close relationship to the opisthokonts . The mitochondria in amoebozoan cells characteristically have branching tubular cristae. However, among the Archamoebae , which are adapted to anoxic or microaerophilic habitats, mitochondria have been lost. It appears (based on molecular genetics) that the members of Amoebozoa form a sister group to animals and fungi, diverging from this lineage after it had split from
420-443: A different sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever investigative techniques are available, and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques. Thus, Ernst Mayr in 1968 defined " beta taxonomy " as the classification of ranks higher than species. An understanding of the biological meaning of variation and of the evolutionary origin of groups of related species
490-511: A high-level taxon , named Amorphea . Amoebozoa includes many of the best-known amoeboid organisms, such as Chaos , Entamoeba , Pelomyxa and the genus Amoeba itself. Species of Amoebozoa may be either shelled (testate) or naked, and cells may possess flagella . Free-living species are common in both salt and freshwater as well as soil, moss and leaf litter. Some live as parasites or symbionts of other organisms, and some are known to cause disease in humans and other organisms. While
560-451: A little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a "beta" taxonomy. Turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy. Later authors have used the term in
630-507: A more suitable name for a clade of approximately the same composition, a sister group to the Diaphoretickes . More recent work places the members of Amorphea together with the malawimonids and collodictyonids in a proposed clade called Opimoda, which comprises one of two major lineages diverging at the root of the eukaryote tree of life, the other being Diphoda . Traditionally all amoebozoa with lobose pseudopods were grouped together in
700-504: A notable renaissance, principally with respect to theoretical content. Part of the theoretical material has to do with evolutionary areas (topics e and f above), the rest relates especially to the problem of classification. Taxonomy is that part of Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above. A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology, systematics , scientific classification, biological classification, and phylogenetics have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes
770-442: A posterior bulb called a uroid, which may serve to accumulate waste, periodically detaching from the rest of the cell. When food is scarce, most species can form cysts , which may be carried aerially and introduce them to new environments. In slime moulds, these structures are called spores, and form on stalked structures called fruiting bodies or sporangia . Mixotrophic species living in a symbiotic relationship with microalgae of
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#1732868591954840-470: A single continuum, as per the scala naturae (the Natural Ladder). This, as well, was taken into consideration in the great chain of being. Advances were made by scholars such as Procopius , Timotheus of Gaza , Demetrios Pepagomenos , and Thomas Aquinas . Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy. During
910-652: A sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether biological nomenclature is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy. For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy: In 1970, Michener et al. defined "systematic biology" and "taxonomy" (terms that are often confused and used interchangeably) in relation to one another as follows: Systematic biology (hereafter called simply systematics)
980-463: A taxon involves five main requirements: However, often much more information is included, like the geographic range of the taxon, ecological notes, chemistry, behavior, etc. How researchers arrive at their taxa varies: depending on the available data, and resources, methods vary from simple quantitative or qualitative comparisons of striking features, to elaborate computer analyses of large amounts of DNA sequence data. Arcella Arcella
1050-524: A truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century, with the possible exception of Aristotle, whose works hint at a taxonomy. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine. There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including Linnaeus 's system of sexual classification for plants (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals
1120-431: Is a genus of testate amoebae in the order Arcellinida, usually found in freshwaters and mosses , and rarely in soils. A key characteristic of Arcella is the circular test with a hole on its center from where finger-like pseudopods emerge. It is one of the largest testacean genera. An Arcella is typically enclosed in a chitinous , umbrella-shaped test (or shell) that has a single central aperture through which
1190-497: Is a critical component of the taxonomic process. As a result, it informs the user as to what the relatives of the taxon are hypothesized to be. Biological classification uses taxonomic ranks, including among others (in order from most inclusive to least inclusive): Domain , Kingdom , Phylum , Class , Order , Family , Genus , Species , and Strain . The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing
1260-423: Is a large and diverse group, but certain features are common to many of its members. The amoebozoan cell is typically divided into a granular central mass, called endoplasm , and a clear outer layer, called ectoplasm. During locomotion, the endoplasm flows forwards and the ectoplasm runs backwards along the outside of the cell. In motion, many amoebozoans have a clearly defined anterior and posterior and may assume
1330-400: Is a novel analysis of the variation patterns in a particular taxon . This analysis may be executed on the basis of any combination of the various available kinds of characters, such as morphological, anatomical , palynological , biochemical and genetic . A monograph or complete revision is a revision that is comprehensive for a taxon for the information given at a particular time, and for
1400-458: Is a resource for fossils. Biological taxonomy is a sub-discipline of biology , and is generally practiced by biologists known as "taxonomists", though enthusiastic naturalists are also frequently involved in the publication of new taxa. Because taxonomy aims to describe and organize life , the work conducted by taxonomists is essential for the study of biodiversity and the resulting field of conservation biology . Biological classification
1470-419: Is even more important for the second stage of taxonomic activity, the sorting of species into groups of relatives ("taxa") and their arrangement in a hierarchy of higher categories. This activity is what the term classification denotes; it is also referred to as "beta taxonomy". How species should be defined in a particular group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as
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#17328685919541540-499: Is retained as an unranked " supergroup " within Eukaryota. Molecular genetic analysis supports Amoebozoa as a monophyletic clade . Modern studies of eukaryotic phylogenetic trees identify it as the sister group to Opisthokonta , another major clade which contains both fungi and animals as well as several other clades comprising some 300 species of unicellular eukaryotes. Amoebozoa and Opisthokonta are sometimes grouped together in
1610-428: Is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum ), class , order , family , genus , and species . The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms and binomial nomenclature for naming organisms. With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics,
1680-449: Is the scientific study of naming, defining ( circumscribing ) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon) and these groups are given a taxonomic rank ; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain , kingdom , phylum ( division
1750-400: Is the field that (a) provides scientific names for organisms, (b) describes them, (c) preserves collections of them, (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys for their identification, and data on their distributions, (e) investigates their evolutionary histories, and (f) considers their environmental adaptations. This is a field with a long history that in recent years has experienced
1820-518: The Aristotelian system , with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the great chain of being in the Western scholastic tradition, again deriving ultimately from Aristotle. The Aristotelian system did not classify plants or fungi , due to the lack of microscopes at the time, as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in
1890-575: The Neomura , the clade that groups together the Archaea and Eucarya , would have evolved from Bacteria, more precisely from Actinomycetota . His 2004 classification treated the archaeobacteria as part of a subkingdom of the kingdom Bacteria, i.e., he rejected the three-domain system entirely. Stefan Luketa in 2012 proposed a five "dominion" system, adding Prionobiota ( acellular and without nucleic acid ) and Virusobiota (acellular but with nucleic acid) to
1960-503: The Renaissance and the Age of Enlightenment , categorizing organisms became more prevalent, and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace the ancient texts. This is sometimes credited to the development of sophisticated optical lenses, which allowed the morphology of organisms to be studied in much greater detail. One of the earliest authors to take advantage of this leap in technology
2030-455: The pseudopods – which are used for locomotion – extend out. In some species the aperture is surrounded by a ring of pores. The test is composed of organic material with a diameter of up to 300 μm and is transparent or light-yellow-colored in young Arcella , but browns while aging due to the progressive deposition of iron and manganese compounds. Contrary to other genera, no gravel chips or other foreign bodies are inserted to strengthen
2100-439: The species problem . The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy. By extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at the higher taxonomic ranks subgenus and above, or simply in clades that include more than one taxon considered a species, expressed in terms of phylogenetic nomenclature . While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations,
2170-461: The vertebrates ), as well as groups like the sharks and cetaceans , are commonly used. His student Theophrastus (Greece, 370–285 BC) carried on this tradition, mentioning some 500 plants and their uses in his Historia Plantarum . Several plant genera can be traced back to Theophrastus, such as Cornus , Crocus , and Narcissus . Taxonomy in the Middle Ages was largely based on
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2240-488: The 1960s. In 1958, Julian Huxley used the term clade . Later, in 1960, Cain and Harrison introduced the term cladistic . The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical evolutionary tree , with the desideratum that all named taxa are monophyletic. A taxon is called monophyletic if it includes all the descendants of an ancestral form. Groups that have descendant groups removed from them are termed paraphyletic , while groups representing more than one branch from
2310-530: The Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the evolutionary relationships among organisms, both living and extinct. The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below: The varied definitions either place taxonomy as
2380-841: The Lobosa are paraphyletic: Conosa is sister of the Cutosea. Centramoebida Himatismenida Himatismenida Thecamoebida Dermamoebida Vannellida Dactylopodida Trichosida Microcoryciidae Echinamoebida Leptomyxida Euamoebida Arcellinida Squamocutida Entamoebida Pelobiontida Phalansteriida Flamellidae Ramamoebida Profiliida Fractovitellida Acytosteliales Dictyosteliida Ceratiomyxida Protosporangiida Cribrariales Reticulariales Liceida Trichiida Taxonomy (biology) In biology , taxonomy (from Ancient Greek τάξις ( taxis ) 'arrangement' and -νομία ( -nomia ) ' method ')
2450-487: The Origin of Species (1859) led to a new explanation for classifications, based on evolutionary relationships. This was the concept of phyletic systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of Eichler (1883) and Engler (1886–1892). The advent of cladistic methodology in the 1970s led to classifications based on the sole criterion of monophyly , supported by the presence of synapomorphies . Since then,
2520-522: The animal and plant kingdoms toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species was published. The pattern of the "Natural System" did not entail a generating process, such as evolution, but may have implied it, inspiring early transmutationist thinkers. Among early works exploring the idea of a transmutation of species were Zoonomia in 1796 by Erasmus Darwin (Charles Darwin's grandfather), and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 's Philosophie zoologique of 1809. The idea
2590-501: The class Lobosea , placed with other amoeboids in the phylum Sarcodina or Rhizopoda , but these were considered to be unnatural groups. Structural and genetic studies identified the percolozoans and several archamoebae as independent groups. In phylogenies based on rRNA their representatives were separate from other amoebae, and appeared to diverge near the base of eukaryotic evolution, as did most slime molds. However, revised trees by Cavalier-Smith and Chao in 1996 suggested that
2660-473: The classic Lobosea: non-flagellated amoebae with blunt, lobose pseudopods ( Amoeba , Acanthamoeba, Arcella, Difflugia etc. ). The latter is made up of both amoeboid and flagellated cells, characteristically with more pointed or slightly branching subpseudopodia (Archamoebae and the Mycetozoan slime molds). From older studies by Cavalier-Smith, Chao & Lewis 2016 and Silar 2016. Also recent phylogeny indicates
2730-542: The definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules. In zoology , the nomenclature for the more commonly used ranks ( superfamily to subspecies ), is regulated by the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN Code ). In the fields of phycology , mycology , and botany , the naming of taxa is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants ( ICN ). The initial description of
2800-405: The direction of locomotion. These are more or less tubular and are mostly filled with granular endoplasm. The cell mass flows into a leading pseudopod, and the others ultimately retract, unless the organism changes direction. While most amoebozoans are "naked," like the familiar Amoeba and Chaos , or covered with a loose coat of minute scales, like Cochliopodium and Korotnevella , members of
2870-399: The entire world. Other (partial) revisions may be restricted in the sense that they may only use some of the available character sets or have a limited spatial scope. A revision results in a conformation of or new insights in the relationships between the subtaxa within the taxon under study, which may lead to a change in the classification of these subtaxa, the identification of new subtaxa, or
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2940-489: The evidentiary basis has been expanded with data from molecular genetics that for the most part complements traditional morphology . Naming and classifying human surroundings likely began with the onset of language. Distinguishing poisonous plants from edible plants is integral to the survival of human communities. Medicinal plant illustrations show up in Egyptian wall paintings from c. 1500 BC , indicating that
3010-516: The exception of spiders published in Svenska Spindlar ). Even taxonomic names published by Linnaeus himself before these dates are considered pre-Linnaean. Modern taxonomy is heavily influenced by technology such as DNA sequencing , bioinformatics , databases , and imaging . A pattern of groups nested within groups was specified by Linnaeus' classifications of plants and animals, and these patterns began to be represented as dendrograms of
3080-486: The first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds. Using the then newly discovered fossils of Archaeopteryx and Hesperornis , Thomas Henry Huxley pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by Richard Owen in 1842. The resulting description, that of dinosaurs "giving rise to" or being "the ancestors of" birds, is the essential hallmark of evolutionary taxonomic thinking. As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in
3150-682: The formal naming of clades. Linnaean ranks are optional and have no formal standing under the PhyloCode , which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes. While popularity of phylogenetic nomenclature has grown steadily in the last few decades, it remains to be seen whether a majority of systematists will eventually adopt the PhyloCode or continue using the current systems of nomenclature that have been employed (and modified, but arguably not as much as some systematists wish) for over 250 years. Well before Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms. Linnaeus used this as
3220-456: The genus Chlorella , which lives inside the cytoplasm of their host, have been found in Arcellinida and Mayorella . The majority of Amoebozoa lack flagella and more generally do not form microtubule -supported structures except during mitosis . However, flagella do occur among the Archamoebae , and many slime moulds produce biflagellate gametes . The flagellum is generally anchored by
3290-839: The housing. Different species of Arcella can have different number of nuclei, ranging from a single nucleus, as in some A. hemisphaerica , up to 200 nuclei, as in A. megastoma , though the majority is binucleate. They also have many contractile vacuoles , and can develop vacuoles of carbon dioxide in their cytoplasm to float up to the surface of the water. Arcella inhabit freshwater pools, eutrophic waters, marshes , mosses , as well as wet foliage. Few species can also be found in soils. They nourish on diatoms , unicellular green algae or animal protozoa such as flagellates and ciliates . Most species are worldwide-distributed, but some have restricted distributions, e.g. A. brasiliensis and A. rota which are endemic to South America. They eat by stretching out their pseudopods to surround
3360-463: The largest protozoa. The well-known species Amoeba proteus , which may reach 800 μm in length, is often studied in schools and laboratories as a representative cell or model organism , partly because of its convenient size. Multinucleate amoebae like Chaos and Pelomyxa may be several millimetres in length, and some multicellular amoebozoa, such as the "dog vomit" slime mold Fuligo septica , can cover an area of several square meters. Amoebozoa
3430-466: The late 19th and early 20th centuries, palaeontologists worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups. With the modern evolutionary synthesis of the early 1940s, an essentially modern understanding of the evolution of the major groups was in place. As evolutionary taxonomy is based on Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use. The cladistic method has emerged since
3500-424: The majority of amoebozoan species are unicellular, the group also includes several clades of slime molds , which have a macroscopic, multicellular stage of life during which individual amoeboid cells remain together after multiple cell division to form a macroscopic plasmodium or, in cellular slime molds, aggregate to form one. Amoebozoa vary greatly in size. Some are only 10–20 μm in diameter, while others are among
3570-401: The merger of previous subtaxa. Taxonomic characters are the taxonomic attributes that can be used to provide the evidence from which relationships (the phylogeny ) between taxa are inferred. Kinds of taxonomic characters include: The term " alpha taxonomy " is primarily used to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming taxa , particularly species. In earlier literature,
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#17328685919543640-467: The name "unikonts" (formally, Unikonta) for this branch, whose members were believed to have been descended from a common ancestor possessing a single emergent flagellum rooted in one basal body . However, while the close relationship between Amoebozoa and Opisthokonta is robustly supported, recent work has shown that the hypothesis of a uniciliate ancestor is probably false. In their Revised Classification of Eukaryotes (2012), Adl et al. proposed Amorphea as
3710-619: The order Arcellinida form rigid shells, or tests , equipped with a single aperture through which the pseudopods emerge. Arcellinid tests may be secreted from organic materials, as in Arcella , or built up from collected particles cemented together, as in Difflugia . In all amoebozoa, the primary mode of nutrition is phagocytosis , in which the cell surrounds potential food particles with its pseudopods, sealing them into vacuoles within which they may be digested and absorbed. Some amoebozoans have
3780-402: The other groups, as illustrated below in a simplified diagram: Loukozoa [REDACTED] CRuMs [REDACTED] Amoebozoa Breviata [REDACTED] Apusomonadida [REDACTED] Fungi [REDACTED] Animalia [REDACTED] Strong similarities between Amoebozoa and Opisthokonts lead to the hypothesis that they form a distinct clade. Thomas Cavalier-Smith proposed
3850-434: The possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetics colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable ... Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide
3920-774: The rank of Order, although both exclude fossil representatives. A separate compilation (Ruggiero, 2014) covers extant taxa to the rank of Family. Other, database-driven treatments include the Encyclopedia of Life , the Global Biodiversity Information Facility , the NCBI taxonomy database , the Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera , the Open Tree of Life , and the Catalogue of Life . The Paleobiology Database
3990-667: The remaining lobosans do form a monophyletic group, to which the Archamoebae and Mycetozoa were closely related, although the percolozoans were not. Subsequently, they emended the phylum Amoebozoa to include both the subphylum Lobosa and a new subphylum Conosa , comprising the Archamoebae and the Mycetozoa . Recent molecular genetic data appear to support this primary division of the Amoebozoa into Lobosa and Conosa. The former, as defined by Cavalier-Smith and his collaborators, consists largely of
4060-407: The same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting. The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The term itself was introduced in 1813 by de Candolle , in his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique . John Lindley provided an early definition of systematics in 1830, although he wrote of "systematic botany" rather than using the term "systematics". Europeans tend to use
4130-472: The term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, and the products of research through the end of the 19th century. William Bertram Turrill introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy. ... there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate
4200-482: The terms "systematics" and "biosystematics" for the study of biodiversity as a whole, whereas North Americans tend to use "taxonomy" more frequently. However, taxonomy, and in particular alpha taxonomy , is more specifically the identification, description, and naming (i.e., nomenclature) of organisms, while "classification" focuses on placing organisms within hierarchical groups that show their relationships to other organisms. A taxonomic revision or taxonomic review
4270-505: The three-domain method is the separation of Archaea and Bacteria , previously grouped into the single kingdom Bacteria (a kingdom also sometimes called Monera ), with the Eukaryota for all organisms whose cells contain a nucleus . A small number of scientists include a sixth kingdom, Archaea, but do not accept the domain method. Thomas Cavalier-Smith , who published extensively on the classification of protists , in 2002 proposed that
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#17328685919544340-427: The top rank, dividing the physical world into the vegetable, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made the classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased, five- and six-kingdom systems being the most common. Domains are a relatively new grouping. First proposed in 1977, Carl Woese 's three-domain system was not generally accepted until later. One main characteristic of
4410-436: The traditional three domains. Partial classifications exist for many individual groups of organisms and are revised and replaced as new information becomes available; however, comprehensive, published treatments of most or all life are rarer; recent examples are that of Adl et al., 2012 and 2019, which covers eukaryotes only with an emphasis on protists, and Ruggiero et al., 2015, covering both eukaryotes and prokaryotes to
4480-514: The tree of life are called polyphyletic . Monophyletic groups are recognized and diagnosed on the basis of synapomorphies , shared derived character states. Cladistic classifications are compatible with traditional Linnean taxonomy and the Codes of Zoological and Botanical nomenclature , to a certain extent. An alternative system of nomenclature, the International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature or PhyloCode has been proposed, which regulates
4550-638: The uses of different species were understood and that a basic taxonomy was in place. Organisms were first classified by Aristotle ( Greece , 384–322 BC) during his stay on the Island of Lesbos . He classified beings by their parts, or in modern terms attributes , such as having live birth, having four legs, laying eggs, having blood, or being warm-bodied. He divided all living things into two groups: plants and animals . Some of his groups of animals, such as Anhaima (animals without blood, translated as invertebrates ) and Enhaima (animals with blood, roughly
4620-486: Was Methodus Plantarum Nova (1682), in which he published details of over 18,000 plant species. At the time, his classifications were perhaps the most complex yet produced by any taxonomist, as he based his taxa on many combined characters. The next major taxonomic works were produced by Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (France, 1656–1708). His work from 1700, Institutiones Rei Herbariae , included more than 9000 species in 698 genera, which directly influenced Linnaeus, as it
4690-551: Was entitled " Systema Naturae " ("the System of Nature"), implying that he, at least, believed that it was more than an "artificial system"). Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of de Jussieu (1789), de Candolle (1813) and Bentham and Hooker (1862–1863). These classifications described empirical patterns and were pre- evolutionary in thinking. The publication of Charles Darwin 's On
4760-597: Was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , published anonymously by Robert Chambers in 1844. With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of common descent . Tree of life representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of
4830-532: Was the Italian physician Andrea Cesalpino (1519–1603), who has been called "the first taxonomist". His magnum opus De Plantis came out in 1583, and described more than 1500 plant species. Two large plant families that he first recognized are in use: the Asteraceae and Brassicaceae . In the 17th century John Ray ( England , 1627–1705) wrote many important taxonomic works. Arguably his greatest accomplishment
4900-429: Was the text he used as a young student. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works Systema Naturae 1st Edition in 1735, Species Plantarum in 1753, and Systema Naturae 10th Edition , he revolutionized modern taxonomy. His works implemented a standardized binomial naming system for animal and plant species, which proved to be an elegant solution to
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