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100-542: The American Leopard Hound is an American breed of hunting dog. It is recognized by the United Kennel Club (UKC) as a scenthound and is in the American Kennel Club 's Foundation Stock Service. The American Leopard Hound is 21 to 27 inches tall and may weigh from 35 to 75 pounds. It comes in a leopard or spotted pattern and may be red, blue, merle, brindle, black or another color, with white making up less than

200-554: A double helix . The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses . DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are nucleic acids . Alongside proteins , lipids and complex carbohydrates ( polysaccharides ), nucleic acids are one of the four major types of macromolecules that are essential for all known forms of life . The two DNA strands are known as polynucleotides as they are composed of simpler monomeric units called nucleotides . Each nucleotide

300-445: A buffer to recruit or titrate ions or antibiotics. Extracellular DNA acts as a functional extracellular matrix component in the biofilms of several bacterial species. It may act as a recognition factor to regulate the attachment and dispersal of specific cell types in the biofilm; it may contribute to biofilm formation; and it may contribute to the biofilm's physical strength and resistance to biological stress. Cell-free fetal DNA

400-544: A bumper. UKC announced Dock Jumping as a licensed event in 2007. Drag Racing features dogs who meet the height requirement, racing in a straight-line course, and in the case of Steeplechase, clearing small hurdles during the run. Flat racing does not include these hurdles. UKC began to license Drag Racing in 2004, at the time called Terrier Racing. In April 2014, UKC rechristened the event Drag Racing, opening it up to all breeds 18 inches or under in height. Lure Coursing features dogs pursuing an artificial lure around

500-459: A cell makes up its genome ; the human genome has approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA arranged into 46 chromosomes. The information carried by DNA is held in the sequence of pieces of DNA called genes . Transmission of genetic information in genes is achieved via complementary base pairing. For example, in transcription, when a cell uses the information in a gene, the DNA sequence is copied into

600-445: A complementary RNA sequence through the attraction between the DNA and the correct RNA nucleotides. Usually, this RNA copy is then used to make a matching protein sequence in a process called translation , which depends on the same interaction between RNA nucleotides. In an alternative fashion, a cell may copy its genetic information in a process called DNA replication . The details of these functions are covered in other articles; here

700-556: A decade before moving to a new space in Kalamazoo, where they would remain until 1979. In the early 1970s, the Fuhrmans opted to give up leadership in the company, and in January 1973, UKC announced the sale to businessman Fred Miller, who would take over as president. Miller oversaw a shift to computerization for UKC records in the mid-1970s, and by 1978, UKC was the first known dog registry in

800-492: A double helix can thus be pulled apart like a zipper, either by a mechanical force or high temperature . As a result of this base pair complementarity, all the information in the double-stranded sequence of a DNA helix is duplicated on each strand, which is vital in DNA replication. This reversible and specific interaction between complementary base pairs is critical for all the functions of DNA in organisms. Most DNA molecules are actually two polymer strands, bound together in

900-428: A full set of the mitochondrial genes. Each human mitochondrion contains, on average, approximately 5 such mtDNA molecules. Each human cell contains approximately 100 mitochondria, giving a total number of mtDNA molecules per human cell of approximately 500. However, the amount of mitochondria per cell also varies by cell type, and an egg cell can contain 100,000 mitochondria, corresponding to up to 1,500,000 copies of

1000-439: A helical fashion by noncovalent bonds; this double-stranded (dsDNA) structure is maintained largely by the intrastrand base stacking interactions, which are strongest for G,C stacks. The two strands can come apart—a process known as melting—to form two single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecules. Melting occurs at high temperatures, low salt and high pH (low pH also melts DNA, but since DNA is unstable due to acid depurination, low pH

1100-571: A higher number is also possible but this would be against the natural principle of least effort . The phosphate groups of DNA give it similar acidic properties to phosphoric acid and it can be considered as a strong acid . It will be fully ionized at a normal cellular pH, releasing protons which leave behind negative charges on the phosphate groups. These negative charges protect DNA from breakdown by hydrolysis by repelling nucleophiles which could hydrolyze it. Pure DNA extracted from cells forms white, stringy clumps. The expression of genes

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1200-667: A long-standing puzzle known as the " C-value enigma ". However, some DNA sequences that do not code protein may still encode functional non-coding RNA molecules, which are involved in the regulation of gene expression . Some noncoding DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes. Telomeres and centromeres typically contain few genes but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. An abundant form of noncoding DNA in humans are pseudogenes , which are copies of genes that have been disabled by mutation. These sequences are usually just molecular fossils , although they can occasionally serve as raw genetic material for

1300-409: A narrower, deeper major groove. The A form occurs under non-physiological conditions in partly dehydrated samples of DNA, while in the cell it may be produced in hybrid pairings of DNA and RNA strands, and in enzyme-DNA complexes. Segments of DNA where the bases have been chemically modified by methylation may undergo a larger change in conformation and adopt the Z form . Here, the strands turn about

1400-761: A new hunting sport in the Elite Shed Dog Series. In October 2018, Raab announced that she would be stepping down as president, though she would remain involved with the company in other capacities. UKC continues to operate out of Kalamazoo, licensing more than 16,000 events every year across the United States. The registry currently recognizes over 370 breeds of dogs. In September 2021, the company announced that it had come to an agreement to acquire American Field Publishing Company, including its Field Dog Stud Book , specializing in upland field trials for pointing dogs and field trial breeding records. UKC stresses

1500-414: A niche among the owners of working dogs, such as herding and hunting dogs. The first dog registered with UKC was an American Pit Bull Terrier , Bennett's own dog, named Bennett's Ring. This also made UKC the first registry to recognize the breed. Starting in 1905, UKC began publishing a journal called Bloodlines , devoted to purebred dogs of all kinds. The journal continued to grow, and in 1974,

1600-523: A predetermined course. The UKC Lure Coursing rule book lays out 26 breeds which may participate in the regular stakes race, while any breed can participate in a coursing aptitude test. The recommended field size for the race is approximately 200 yards by 300 yards, while the minimum field size is set at 150 yards by 200 yards. UKC announced the addition of Lure Coursing in May 2010. Nosework (knows as scentwork in AKC)

1700-431: A process called translation . Within eukaryotic cells, DNA is organized into long structures called chromosomes . Before typical cell division , these chromosomes are duplicated in the process of DNA replication, providing a complete set of chromosomes for each daughter cell. Eukaryotic organisms ( animals , plants , fungi and protists ) store most of their DNA inside the cell nucleus as nuclear DNA , and some in

1800-442: A radius of 10 Å (1.0 nm). According to another study, when measured in a different solution, the DNA chain measured 22–26 Å (2.2–2.6 nm) wide, and one nucleotide unit measured 3.3 Å (0.33 nm) long. The buoyant density of most DNA is 1.7g/cm . DNA does not usually exist as a single strand, but instead as a pair of strands that are held tightly together. These two long strands coil around each other, in

1900-416: A second protein when read in the opposite direction along the other strand. In bacteria , this overlap may be involved in the regulation of gene transcription, while in viruses, overlapping genes increase the amount of information that can be encoded within the small viral genome. DNA can be twisted like a rope in a process called DNA supercoiling . With DNA in its "relaxed" state, a strand usually circles

2000-445: A simple TTAGGG sequence. These guanine-rich sequences may stabilize chromosome ends by forming structures of stacked sets of four-base units, rather than the usual base pairs found in other DNA molecules. Here, four guanine bases, known as a guanine tetrad , form a flat plate. These flat four-base units then stack on top of each other to form a stable G-quadruplex structure. These structures are stabilized by hydrogen bonding between

2100-505: A specially designed obstacle course involving tunnels, bridges, and jumps. The event is timed to measure speed of completion, and accuracy is also taken into consideration. The first UKC-licensed Agility trial was held in July 1995, after the National Club for Dog Agility transferred the program to United Kennel Club. Conformation is the official term for a dog show, referring specifically to

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2200-565: A third of the coat. The American Leopard Hound has a dense, short coat, medium-length drop ears and may have yellow, brown, or blue eyes. The American Leopard Hound is thought to be descended from dogs brought to the New World by Spanish conquistadors to Mexico. It was later brought to the United States by settlers who used it to hunt bear. It was recognized as the Leopard Cur by the UKC in 1998. The name

2300-500: A variety of new performance sports, and launching the company website in April 2008. In July 2014, with Cavanaugh getting ready to pursue retirement, UKC VP of Operations Tanya Raab was named UKC President. Cavanaugh would continue with the organization until officially retiring in October 2015. Raab's tenure as president saw the development of a few more performance sports, and the onset of

2400-447: Is called intercalation . Most intercalators are aromatic and planar molecules; examples include ethidium bromide , acridines , daunomycin , and doxorubicin . For an intercalator to fit between base pairs, the bases must separate, distorting the DNA strands by unwinding of the double helix. This inhibits both transcription and DNA replication, causing toxicity and mutations. As a result, DNA intercalators may be carcinogens , and in

2500-435: Is called a polynucleotide . The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar groups. The sugar in DNA is 2-deoxyribose , which is a pentose (five- carbon ) sugar. The sugars are joined by phosphate groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These are known as the 3′-end (three prime end), and 5′-end (five prime end) carbons,

2600-445: Is composed of one of four nitrogen-containing nucleobases ( cytosine [C], guanine [G], adenine [A] or thymine [T]), a sugar called deoxyribose , and a phosphate group . The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds (known as the phosphodiester linkage ) between the sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating sugar-phosphate backbone . The nitrogenous bases of

2700-434: Is dependent on ionic strength and the concentration of DNA. As a result, it is both the percentage of GC base pairs and the overall length of a DNA double helix that determines the strength of the association between the two strands of DNA. Long DNA helices with a high GC -content have more strongly interacting strands, while short helices with high AT content have more weakly interacting strands. In biology, parts of

2800-411: Is influenced by how the DNA is packaged in chromosomes, in a structure called chromatin . Base modifications can be involved in packaging, with regions that have low or no gene expression usually containing high levels of methylation of cytosine bases. DNA packaging and its influence on gene expression can also occur by covalent modifications of the histone protein core around which DNA is wrapped in

2900-432: Is introduced by enzymes called topoisomerases . These enzymes are also needed to relieve the twisting stresses introduced into DNA strands during processes such as transcription and DNA replication . DNA exists in many possible conformations that include A-DNA , B-DNA , and Z-DNA forms, although only B-DNA and Z-DNA have been directly observed in functional organisms. The conformation that DNA adopts depends on

3000-423: Is modeled after working detection dogs , and challenges dogs to recognize a specific, trained odor, such as birch , anise , clove , myrrh , and vetiver , and then indicate to their handler that they have located that odor in a variety of locations, and elements. UKC began to officially license Nosework events in 2015. In Obedience trials, dogs perform a series of exercises at the command of their handler,

3100-422: Is nothing special about the four natural nucleobases that evolved on Earth. On the other hand, DNA is tightly related to RNA which does not only act as a transcript of DNA but also performs as molecular machines many tasks in cells. For this purpose it has to fold into a structure. It has been shown that to allow to create all possible structures at least four bases are required for the corresponding RNA , while

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3200-514: Is rarely used). The stability of the dsDNA form depends not only on the GC -content (% G,C basepairs) but also on sequence (since stacking is sequence specific) and also length (longer molecules are more stable). The stability can be measured in various ways; a common way is the melting temperature (also called T m value), which is the temperature at which 50% of the double-strand molecules are converted to single-strand molecules; melting temperature

3300-428: Is recreated by an enzyme called DNA polymerase . This enzyme makes the complementary strand by finding the correct base through complementary base pairing and bonding it onto the original strand. As DNA polymerases can only extend a DNA strand in a 5′ to 3′ direction, different mechanisms are used to copy the antiparallel strands of the double helix. In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base appears on

3400-428: Is the sequence of these four nucleobases along the backbone that encodes genetic information. RNA strands are created using DNA strands as a template in a process called transcription , where DNA bases are exchanged for their corresponding bases except in the case of thymine (T), for which RNA substitutes uracil (U). Under the genetic code , these RNA strands specify the sequence of amino acids within proteins in

3500-516: Is the largest human chromosome with approximately 220 million base pairs , and would be 85 mm long if straightened. In eukaryotes , in addition to nuclear DNA , there is also mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) which encodes certain proteins used by the mitochondria. The mtDNA is usually relatively small in comparison to the nuclear DNA. For example, the human mitochondrial DNA forms closed circular molecules, each of which contains 16,569 DNA base pairs, with each such molecule normally containing

3600-486: Is to allow the cell to replicate chromosome ends using the enzyme telomerase , as the enzymes that normally replicate DNA cannot copy the extreme 3′ ends of chromosomes. These specialized chromosome caps also help protect the DNA ends, and stop the DNA repair systems in the cell from treating them as damage to be corrected. In human cells , telomeres are usually lengths of single-stranded DNA containing several thousand repeats of

3700-657: The DNA sequence . Mutagens include oxidizing agents , alkylating agents and also high-energy electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light and X-rays . The type of DNA damage produced depends on the type of mutagen. For example, UV light can damage DNA by producing thymine dimers , which are cross-links between pyrimidine bases. On the other hand, oxidants such as free radicals or hydrogen peroxide produce multiple forms of damage, including base modifications, particularly of guanosine, and double-strand breaks. A typical human cell contains about 150,000 bases that have suffered oxidative damage. Of these oxidative lesions,

3800-406: The amino-acid sequences of proteins is determined by the rules of translation , known collectively as the genetic code . The genetic code consists of three-letter 'words' called codons formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT). In transcription, the codons of a gene are copied into messenger RNA by RNA polymerase . This RNA copy is then decoded by a ribosome that reads

3900-420: The mitochondria as mitochondrial DNA or in chloroplasts as chloroplast DNA . In contrast, prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) store their DNA only in the cytoplasm , in circular chromosomes . Within eukaryotic chromosomes, chromatin proteins, such as histones , compact and organize DNA. These compacting structures guide the interactions between DNA and other proteins, helping control which parts of

4000-419: The 3′ and 5′ carbons along the sugar-phosphate backbone confers directionality (sometimes called polarity) to each DNA strand. In a nucleic acid double helix , the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand: the strands are antiparallel . The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are said to have a directionality of five prime end (5′ ), and three prime end (3′), with

4100-588: The 5′ end having a terminal phosphate group and the 3′ end a terminal hydroxyl group. One major difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, with the 2-deoxyribose in DNA being replaced by the related pentose sugar ribose in RNA. The DNA double helix is stabilized primarily by two forces: hydrogen bonds between nucleotides and base-stacking interactions among aromatic nucleobases. The four bases found in DNA are adenine ( A ), cytosine ( C ), guanine ( G ) and thymine ( T ). These four bases are attached to

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4200-694: The Columbian (white) Collie, the Redbone Coonhound , American Water Spaniel , American (Pit) Bull Terrier, and the American Fox and Coon Hound." After Bennett's death, his daughter Frances Ruth Bennett took over management of the company, and in 1944, she and husband Dr. Edwin Gould Fuhrman moved operations at UKC into the Hanselman Building in Kalamazoo. Operations would continue there for less than

4300-435: The DNA are transcribed. DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides . The structure of DNA is dynamic along its length, being capable of coiling into tight loops and other shapes. In all species it is composed of two helical chains, bound to each other by hydrogen bonds . Both chains are coiled around the same axis, and have the same pitch of 34 ångströms (3.4  nm ). The pair of chains have

4400-453: The DNA double helix that need to separate easily, such as the TATAAT Pribnow box in some promoters , tend to have a high AT content, making the strands easier to pull apart. In the laboratory, the strength of this interaction can be measured by finding the melting temperature T m necessary to break half of the hydrogen bonds. When all the base pairs in a DNA double helix melt,

4500-645: The National Leafy Oak Field Trial, in Kenton, Ohio . Today, UKC licenses thousands of bench shows a year across the country. The organization also crowns National Bench Show Champions yearly at Autumn Oaks, and a World Bench Show Champion at the yearly Coonhound World Championship event. Though promoting Beagles in Bloodlines as far back as 1913, the first UKC-licensed Beagle Field Trial did not take place until 1924. In 1988, UKC met with Beaglers across

4600-401: The RNA sequence by base-pairing the messenger RNA to transfer RNA , which carries amino acids. Since there are 4 bases in 3-letter combinations, there are 64 possible codons (4  combinations). These encode the twenty standard amino acids , giving most amino acids more than one possible codon. There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying the end of the coding region; these are

4700-488: The TAG, TAA, and TGA codons, (UAG, UAA, and UGA on the mRNA). Cell division is essential for an organism to grow, but, when a cell divides, it must replicate the DNA in its genome so that the two daughter cells have the same genetic information as their parent. The double-stranded structure of DNA provides a simple mechanism for DNA replication . Here, the two strands are separated and then each strand's complementary DNA sequence

4800-557: The United States or CEB-US). The event was held in Armour, South Dakota and consisted of a conformation show and two distinct field trials. Since that event, UKC has continued to host pointing dog field trials with clubs across the country. In 2021, UKC announced that it had acquired American Field Publishing Company, including the Field Dog Stud Book, the oldest purebred dog registry in the United States. The UKC Elite Shed Dog Series

4900-442: The axis of the double helix once every 10.4 base pairs, but if the DNA is twisted the strands become more tightly or more loosely wound. If the DNA is twisted in the direction of the helix, this is positive supercoiling, and the bases are held more tightly together. If they are twisted in the opposite direction, this is negative supercoiling, and the bases come apart more easily. In nature, most DNA has slight negative supercoiling that

5000-407: The canonical bases plus uracil. Twin helical strands form the DNA backbone. Another double helix may be found tracing the spaces, or grooves, between the strands. These voids are adjacent to the base pairs and may provide a binding site . As the strands are not symmetrically located with respect to each other, the grooves are unequally sized. The major groove is 22 ångströms (2.2 nm) wide, while

5100-467: The case of thalidomide, a teratogen . Others such as benzo[ a ]pyrene diol epoxide and aflatoxin form DNA adducts that induce errors in replication. Nevertheless, due to their ability to inhibit DNA transcription and replication, other similar toxins are also used in chemotherapy to inhibit rapidly growing cancer cells. DNA usually occurs as linear chromosomes in eukaryotes , and circular chromosomes in prokaryotes . The set of chromosomes in

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5200-581: The cell (see below) , but the major and minor grooves are always named to reflect the differences in width that would be seen if the DNA was twisted back into the ordinary B form . In a DNA double helix, each type of nucleobase on one strand bonds with just one type of nucleobase on the other strand. This is called complementary base pairing . Purines form hydrogen bonds to pyrimidines, with adenine bonding only to thymine in two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine bonding only to guanine in three hydrogen bonds. This arrangement of two nucleotides binding together across

5300-619: The chromatin structure or else by remodeling carried out by chromatin remodeling complexes (see Chromatin remodeling ). There is, further, crosstalk between DNA methylation and histone modification, so they can coordinately affect chromatin and gene expression. For one example, cytosine methylation produces 5-methylcytosine , which is important for X-inactivation of chromosomes. The average level of methylation varies between organisms—the worm Caenorhabditis elegans lacks cytosine methylation, while vertebrates have higher levels, with up to 1% of their DNA containing 5-methylcytosine. Despite

5400-460: The company website remains devoted to dog law, with tips to get involved, and links to contact lawmakers. United Kennel Club's two main programs are called Hunting Operations and All-Breed Sports. Hunting Operations runs six separate types of competitive hunt, generally based on the breed of dog, while All-Breed Sports runs ten different performance sports, that are open to—as the name suggests—all breeds. The first organized Coonhound field trial

5500-468: The complexity of which varies by competition level, from the basics of sit, stay, heel , to more advanced exercises like directed retrieves and following hand signals. The UKC Obedience Program began in 1977. DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid ( / d iː ˈ ɒ k s ɪ ˌ r aɪ b oʊ nj uː ˌ k l iː ɪ k , - ˌ k l eɪ -/ ; DNA ) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form

5600-476: The conditions found in cells, it is not a well-defined conformation but a family of related DNA conformations that occur at the high hydration levels present in cells. Their corresponding X-ray diffraction and scattering patterns are characteristic of molecular paracrystals with a significant degree of disorder. Compared to B-DNA, the A-DNA form is a wider right-handed spiral, with a shallow, wide minor groove and

5700-784: The country to develop the UKC Hunting Beagle format, with the first event taking place in 1990. Currently, UKC runs the Hunting Beagle Nationals, established in 1992, and the Hunting Beagle World Championship, established in 2000. Both events feature a Hunt and Bench Show portion. In 2021, UKC paired with the Beagle Gundog Alliance to develop a new format, the Beagle Gundog program. This format held its first national event that same year. In

5800-405: The creation of new genes through the process of gene duplication and divergence . A gene is a sequence of DNA that contains genetic information and can influence the phenotype of an organism. Within a gene, the sequence of bases along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence, which then defines one or more protein sequences. The relationship between the nucleotide sequences of genes and

5900-589: The cruelty of the practice of vivisection . The first article referenced the conditions in which the famous Pavlov dogs were kept, as well as other experiments being performed on dogs. This regular column would continue to run through the early 1940s. UKC also maintains position statements on a variety of topics pertinent to dog law, documenting the company's opposition to Breed Specific Legislation , mandatory spay and neuter laws, blanket anti-tethering laws, and its desire to steer potential dog owners toward purchasing dogs from responsible breeders . A section of

6000-449: The cytoplasm called the nucleoid . The genetic information in a genome is held within genes, and the complete set of this information in an organism is called its genotype . A gene is a unit of heredity and is a region of DNA that influences a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes contain an open reading frame that can be transcribed, and regulatory sequences such as promoters and enhancers , which control transcription of

6100-405: The double helix (from six-carbon ring to six-carbon ring) is called a Watson-Crick base pair. DNA with high GC-content is more stable than DNA with low GC -content. A Hoogsteen base pair (hydrogen bonding the 6-carbon ring to the 5-carbon ring) is a rare variation of base-pairing. As hydrogen bonds are not covalent , they can be broken and rejoined relatively easily. The two strands of DNA in

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6200-605: The early 1980s, UKC held a series of meetings with several prominent voices in the Hunting Retriever field, about an arrangement to create a new format of field trial for retrievers. This became the Hunting Retriever Club, which was quickly affiliated with UKC. In April 1984, the first Hunting Retriever Club and UKC hunt was held in Ruston, Louisiana . The first Grand Hunt, was established in 1986, as dogs quickly reached

6300-442: The edges of the bases and chelation of a metal ion in the centre of each four-base unit. Other structures can also be formed, with the central set of four bases coming from either a single strand folded around the bases, or several different parallel strands, each contributing one base to the central structure. In addition to these stacked structures, telomeres also form large loop structures called telomere loops, or T-loops. Here,

6400-481: The end of an otherwise complementary double-strand of DNA. However, branched DNA can occur if a third strand of DNA is introduced and contains adjoining regions able to hybridize with the frayed regions of the pre-existing double-strand. Although the simplest example of branched DNA involves only three strands of DNA, complexes involving additional strands and multiple branches are also possible. Branched DNA can be used in nanotechnology to construct geometric shapes, see

6500-480: The external and visible details of a dog's build and structure. The preferred details are written out in each breed's standards, which are published and held by each registry. UKC began to license Conformation Dog Shows in the 1920s, with the first annual UKC Bench Show held in May 1926. In Dock Jumping (called Dock Diving in AKC), dogs jump off the end of a standard length dock, usually jumping for distance, though some classes feature high jumps or working to fetch

6600-553: The first events being held toward the end of the year. The Cur and Feist breeds are smaller dogs, most often used to hunt squirrel and other small game. Over the two decades of the program's existence, UKC has developed World Championships for both Cur Squirrel Dog and Feist Squirrel Dog, and holds licensed bench shows. The first UKC-licensed pointing dog trial was held in April 2004, by the French Brittany Gundog Club (which would later become Club de l’Epagneul Breton of

6700-418: The focus is on the interactions between DNA and other molecules that mediate the function of the genome. Genomic DNA is tightly and orderly packed in the process called DNA condensation , to fit the small available volumes of the cell. In eukaryotes, DNA is located in the cell nucleus , with small amounts in mitochondria and chloroplasts . In prokaryotes, the DNA is held within an irregularly shaped body in

6800-448: The functions of these RNAs are not entirely clear. One proposal is that antisense RNAs are involved in regulating gene expression through RNA-RNA base pairing. A few DNA sequences in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and more in plasmids and viruses , blur the distinction between sense and antisense strands by having overlapping genes . In these cases, some DNA sequences do double duty, encoding one protein when read along one strand, and

6900-448: The helical axis in a left-handed spiral, the opposite of the more common B form. These unusual structures can be recognized by specific Z-DNA binding proteins and may be involved in the regulation of transcription. For many years, exobiologists have proposed the existence of a shadow biosphere , a postulated microbial biosphere of Earth that uses radically different biochemical and molecular processes than currently known life. One of

7000-448: The hydration level, DNA sequence, the amount and direction of supercoiling, chemical modifications of the bases, the type and concentration of metal ions , and the presence of polyamines in solution. The first published reports of A-DNA X-ray diffraction patterns —and also B-DNA—used analyses based on Patterson functions that provided only a limited amount of structural information for oriented fibers of DNA. An alternative analysis

7100-427: The hydrolytic activities of cellular water, etc., also occur frequently. Although most of these damages are repaired, in any cell some DNA damage may remain despite the action of repair processes. These remaining DNA damages accumulate with age in mammalian postmitotic tissues. This accumulation appears to be an important underlying cause of aging. Many mutagens fit into the space between two adjacent base pairs, this

7200-412: The importance of 5-methylcytosine, it can deaminate to leave a thymine base, so methylated cytosines are particularly prone to mutations . Other base modifications include adenine methylation in bacteria, the presence of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine in the brain , and the glycosylation of uracil to produce the "J-base" in kinetoplastids . DNA can be damaged by many sorts of mutagens , which change

7300-596: The journal would split into two distinct magazines. Coonhound Bloodlines would devote itself to the UKC-recognized Coonhound breeds, while Bloodlines, devoted to all breeds, would continue to publish until it was discontinued in 2015. Coonhound Bloodlines continues to this day. Bennett continued to run UKC out of his home until his death in 1936. Upon his death, The New York Herald Tribune credited Bennett with developing breeds such as "the American Eskimo ,

7400-534: The late 1980s, with qualifying dogs hunting in one of four zones to earn their way to the Finals. In 1992, the number of zones expanded to five. Today, there are seven zones, accommodating hundreds of dogs. A Bench Show is essentially a Conformation show for Coonhounds. The dogs are placed on a two-foot high platform to assist the judge in their examination of the dog for adherence to breed standards . The first UKC licensed Bench Show for Coonhounds occurred in 1946, at

7500-441: The minor groove is 12 Å (1.2 nm) in width. Due to the larger width of the major groove, the edges of the bases are more accessible in the major groove than in the minor groove. As a result, proteins such as transcription factors that can bind to specific sequences in double-stranded DNA usually make contact with the sides of the bases exposed in the major groove. This situation varies in unusual conformations of DNA within

7600-516: The mitochondrial genome (constituting up to 90% of the DNA of the cell). A DNA sequence is called a "sense" sequence if it is the same as that of a messenger RNA copy that is translated into protein. The sequence on the opposite strand is called the "antisense" sequence. Both sense and antisense sequences can exist on different parts of the same strand of DNA (i.e. both strands can contain both sense and antisense sequences). In both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, antisense RNA sequences are produced, but

7700-477: The most dangerous are double-strand breaks, as these are difficult to repair and can produce point mutations , insertions , deletions from the DNA sequence, and chromosomal translocations . These mutations can cause cancer . Because of inherent limits in the DNA repair mechanisms, if humans lived long enough, they would all eventually develop cancer. DNA damages that are naturally occurring , due to normal cellular processes that produce reactive oxygen species,

7800-464: The new strand, and the cell ends up with a perfect copy of its DNA. Naked extracellular DNA (eDNA), most of it released by cell death, is nearly ubiquitous in the environment. Its concentration in soil may be as high as 2 μg/L, and its concentration in natural aquatic environments may be as high at 88 μg/L. Various possible functions have been proposed for eDNA: it may be involved in horizontal gene transfer ; it may provide nutrients; and it may act as

7900-454: The open reading frame. In many species , only a small fraction of the total sequence of the genome encodes protein. For example, only about 1.5% of the human genome consists of protein-coding exons , with over 50% of human DNA consisting of non-coding repetitive sequences . The reasons for the presence of so much noncoding DNA in eukaryotic genomes and the extraordinary differences in genome size , or C-value , among species, represent

8000-428: The place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. In addition to RNA and DNA, many artificial nucleic acid analogues have been created to study the properties of nucleic acids, or for use in biotechnology. Modified bases occur in DNA. The first of these recognized was 5-methylcytosine , which was found in the genome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in 1925. The reason for

8100-530: The presence of these noncanonical bases in bacterial viruses ( bacteriophages ) is to avoid the restriction enzymes present in bacteria. This enzyme system acts at least in part as a molecular immune system protecting bacteria from infection by viruses. Modifications of the bases cytosine and adenine, the more common and modified DNA bases, play vital roles in the epigenetic control of gene expression in plants and animals. A number of noncanonical bases are known to occur in DNA. Most of these are modifications of

8200-412: The prime symbol being used to distinguish these carbon atoms from those of the base to which the deoxyribose forms a glycosidic bond . Therefore, any DNA strand normally has one end at which there is a phosphate group attached to the 5′ carbon of a ribose (the 5′ phosphoryl) and another end at which there is a free hydroxyl group attached to the 3′ carbon of a ribose (the 3′ hydroxyl). The orientation of

8300-466: The proposals was the existence of lifeforms that use arsenic instead of phosphorus in DNA . A report in 2010 of the possibility in the bacterium GFAJ-1 was announced, though the research was disputed, and evidence suggests the bacterium actively prevents the incorporation of arsenic into the DNA backbone and other biomolecules. At the ends of the linear chromosomes are specialized regions of DNA called telomeres . The main function of these regions

8400-409: The same biological information . This information is replicated when the two strands separate. A large part of DNA (more than 98% for humans) is non-coding , meaning that these sections do not serve as patterns for protein sequences . The two strands of DNA run in opposite directions to each other and are thus antiparallel . Attached to each sugar is one of four types of nucleobases (or bases ). It

8500-469: The same day, demonstrating both form and function. However, only limited regional qualifiers are offered annually, and those are chosen at whim. Dogs must qualify at a regional qualifier to receive an invite to the national. Very early on, UKC began to stake out positions on topics of the day pertaining to dogs and dog law. Beginning in February 1936, the UKC journal Bloodlines ran a regular column discussing

8600-432: The section on uses in technology below. Several artificial nucleobases have been synthesized, and successfully incorporated in the eight-base DNA analogue named Hachimoji DNA . Dubbed S, B, P, and Z, these artificial bases are capable of bonding with each other in a predictable way (S–B and P–Z), maintain the double helix structure of DNA, and be transcribed to RNA. Their existence could be seen as an indication that there

8700-473: The shape of a double helix . The nucleotide contains both a segment of the backbone of the molecule (which holds the chain together) and a nucleobase (which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix). A nucleobase linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside , and a base linked to a sugar and to one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide . A biopolymer comprising multiple linked nucleotides (as in DNA)

8800-498: The single-stranded DNA curls around in a long circle stabilized by telomere-binding proteins. At the very end of the T-loop, the single-stranded telomere DNA is held onto a region of double-stranded DNA by the telomere strand disrupting the double-helical DNA and base pairing to one of the two strands. This triple-stranded structure is called a displacement loop or D-loop . In DNA, fraying occurs when non-complementary regions exist at

8900-518: The strands separate and exist in solution as two entirely independent molecules. These single-stranded DNA molecules have no single common shape, but some conformations are more stable than others. In humans, the total female diploid nuclear genome per cell extends for 6.37 Gigabase pairs (Gbp), is 208.23 cm long and weighs 6.51 picograms (pg). Male values are 6.27 Gbp, 205.00 cm, 6.41 pg. Each DNA polymer can contain hundreds of millions of nucleotides, such as in chromosome 1 . Chromosome 1

9000-469: The sugar-phosphate to form the complete nucleotide, as shown for adenosine monophosphate . Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine pairs with cytosine, forming A-T and G-C base pairs . The nucleobases are classified into two types: the purines , A and G , which are fused five- and six-membered heterocyclic compounds , and the pyrimidines , the six-membered rings C and T . A fifth pyrimidine nucleobase, uracil ( U ), usually takes

9100-435: The time catered too much to Conformation-only show dog owners or wealthy hobbyists, whom he called "the big city idle rich". Bennett's goal for UKC was to be a registry that recognized a wide range of breeds, as opposed to some of the working dog registries, which only recognized a handful of breeds. He envisioned UKC-registered dogs occupying a wide range of uses, from working , to companionship , to hunting . Bennett found

9200-495: The title of Hunting Retriever Champion, and had no higher levels to reach. In October 1986, the first Grand Hunt was held, and in the years since, there has been a Grand Hunt every fall and every spring. With the development of Hunting Retriever Club came a new publication for United Kennel Club, Hunting Retriever Magazine , the first issue of which was published in August 1984. The UKC Cur & Feist program began in 2000, with

9300-430: The two separate polynucleotide strands are bound together, according to base pairing rules (A with T and C with G), with hydrogen bonds to make double-stranded DNA. The complementary nitrogenous bases are divided into two groups, the single-ringed pyrimidines and the double-ringed purines . In DNA, the pyrimidines are thymine and cytosine; the purines are adenine and guanine. Both strands of double-stranded DNA store

9400-564: The value of what they call the "Total Dog". It refers to a dog which displays "equal parts function, temperament, and structure," and is used to showcase dogs that look as their breed should in Conformation shows, but also are able to excel at performance sports that utilize skills for which they were bred. UKC awards a Total Dog Award to dogs at All-Breed Sports events which earn a win in Conformation as well as an eligible Performance Sport on

9500-541: The world to computerize all its registration records. In January 1979, Miller announced that UKC would be moving to what would become their current offices in Kalamazoo, Michigan. The company would occupy the new building in March of that year. In the 1980s UKC added Obedience as a performance sport, and in 1984, UKC partnered with the newly formed Hunting Retriever Club to create a new format of field trials for hunters. The partnership also saw UKC begin publication on what

9600-425: Was at the time a third magazine, Hunting Retriever Magazine, which continues to this day. In April 1996, UKC became the first All-Breed dog registry to offer a DNA program, which it opened up to dogs from other registries in March 1997. In March 2000, Miller died, and leadership shifted to vice president and General Manager Wayne Cavanaugh. Cavanaugh continued to digitize and modernize UKC, adding and developing

9700-671: Was changed to American Leopard Hound in 2008. While the American Leopard Hound is not formally recognized by the AKC, it is in their Foundation Stock Service, and has been since 2012. This dog-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . United Kennel Club The UKC is not recognised by the International Canine Federation . UKC was founded by Chauncey Z. Bennett, on February 10, 1898, after feeling that other dog registries in existence at

9800-524: Was created in 2017, to provide a family-friendly format for those who enjoy participating in the gathering of shed antlers—or shed hunting . The first UKC Elite Shed Dog National event was held in April 2020 in Whittington, Illinois . The UKC All-Breed Sports Department operates ten performance sports, as well as the SPOT (Socialized Pet Obedience Test) program. In Agility , a dog and handler race to complete

9900-504: Was held in Marion, Ohio , in 1924. The first unofficial UKC Nite Hunt was held in 1953 in Ingraham, Illinois . In 1960, UKC held the first Autumn Oaks event, at which the organization crowns a National Grand Nite Champion yearly. In 1978, UKC launched Coonhound World Championship, to crown a World Nite Hunt Champion. The event continued to grow, and UKC instituted a zone semifinal system in

10000-517: Was proposed by Wilkins et al. in 1953 for the in vivo B-DNA X-ray diffraction-scattering patterns of highly hydrated DNA fibers in terms of squares of Bessel functions . In the same journal, James Watson and Francis Crick presented their molecular modeling analysis of the DNA X-ray diffraction patterns to suggest that the structure was a double helix. Although the B-DNA form is most common under

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