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70-511: The American Cream Draft is an American breed of draft horse , characterized by the cream or "gold champagne" color of its coat. It was developed in Iowa during the early twentieth century from a cream-colored mare named Old Granny. A breed registry was formed in 1944 but became inactive for several decades when breed numbers dropped due to the mechanization of farming . It was reactivated in 1982 and population numbers have slowly grown since then. It

140-454: A breed registry . The concept is somewhat flexible in horses, as open stud books are created for recording pedigrees of horse breeds that are not yet fully true-breeding. Registries are considered the authority as to whether a given breed is listed as a "horse" or a "pony". There are also a number of " color breed ", sport horse , and gaited horse registries for horses with various phenotypes or other traits, which admit any animal fitting

210-505: A Belgian mare with light chestnut coloring, and she is credited with Silver Lace's size – at 2,230 pounds (1,010 kg) he weighed considerably more than most of his bloodline. Silver Lace quickly became a popular stallion in Iowa. However, stallions standing for public stud service in Iowa were required to be registered with the Iowa Department of Agriculture , and this agency only allowed horses of recognized breeds. As Silver Lace

280-509: A DNA color test, it is impossible for these colors to breed "true" due to the action of a single copy of the cream allele. Crossing two heterozygous dilutes will statistically result in offspring which are 25% the base color, 25% homozygous dilute, and 50% heterozygous dilute. When a horse is homozygous , meaning it has two copies of the cream allele, the strongest color dilution occurs. All three shades can be difficult to distinguish from one another, and are often only firmly identified after

350-444: A DNA test. While both red and black pigments are turned cream, the black pigment retains a little more color and tends to have a reddish or rusty tint. Thus all-red coats are turned all-ivory, all-black coats are turned all-rusty cream, and bay coats have ivory bodies with slightly darker points. Horses with two copies of the cream allele can be collectively called double-dilutes, homozygous creams, or blue-eyed creams, and they share

420-443: A base coat color that is chestnut will become palomino if they are heterozygous , having one copy of the cream gene, or cremello, if they are homozygous . Similarly, horses with a bay base coat and the cream gene will be buckskin or perlino. A black base coat with the cream gene becomes the not-always-recognized smoky black or a smoky cream. Cream horses, even those with blue eyes, are not white horses. Dilution coloring

490-513: A breed is described as a "pony" by the breed standard or principal breed registry, it is listed in this section, even if some individuals have horse characteristics. All other breeds are listed in the § Horse breeds section above. (Because of this designation by the preference of a given breed registry, most miniature horse breeds are listed as "horses", not ponies.) There are some registries that accept horses (and sometimes ponies and mules) of almost any breed or type for registration. Color

560-438: A condition homologous to cream exhibit irregularly shaped melanosomes , which are the organelles within melanocytes that directly produce pigment. Genes in horses such as Frame and Sabino1 produce white spotting by interrupting or limiting the migration of melanocytes from the neural crest , while the cream mutation affects the nature of the pigments produced by melanocytes. Therefore the skin, eyes, and hair of horses with

630-430: A given set of physical characteristics, even if there the trait is not a true-breeding characteristic. Other recording entities or specialty organizations may recognize horses from multiple breeds, or are recording designer crossbreds . Such animals may be classified here as a breed, a crossbreed, or a "type”, depending on the stage of breed recognition. In some cultures and for some competition-sanctioning organizations,

700-489: A homozygous dilute. Palomino is the best known cream-based coat color, and is produced by the action of one cream allele on a chestnut coat. It is characterized by a cream or white mane and tail and yellow or gold coat. The classic golden shade akin to that of a newly minted gold coin is common, but there are other variations: the darkest shades are called sooty palominos, unusual but most often seen in Morgans , can include

770-486: A horse carrying champagne dilution . Champagne (CH) dilutes are born with pumpkin-pink skin and blue eyes, which darken within days to amber, green or light brown, and their skin acquires a darker mottled complexion around the eyes, muzzle, and genitalia as the animal matures. It is also possible for a heterozygous cream horse to carry more than one of the other dilution alleles. ( see "Cream mimics" below) In such cases, they may exhibit some characteristics more typical of

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840-428: A horse that normally matures less than about 145 cm or 14.2  hands (58 inches, 147 cm) when fully grown may be classified as a " pony ". However, unless the principal breed registry or breed standard describes the breed as a pony, it is listed in this section, even if some or all representatives are small or have some pony characteristics. Ponies are listed in the § Pony breeds section below. If

910-433: A horse will be blue-eyed in addition to a light coat color. The cream gene is one of several hypomelanism or dilution genes identified in horses. Therefore, it is not always possible to tell by color alone whether the C allele is present without a DNA test . Other dilution genes that may mimic some of the effects of the cream gene in either single or double copies include the pearl gene , silver dapple gene , and

980-410: A mane and tail with darker hairs and heavy dappling in the coat. The palest varieties can be nearly white, retaining darker skin and eyes, are sometimes mistakenly confused with cremello, and are called isabellas in some places. Buckskin is also a well-known color, produced by the action of one cream gene on a bay coat. All red hairs in the base coat are diluted to gold. The black areas, such as

1050-404: A number of characteristics. The eyes are pale blue, paler than the unpigmented blue eyes associated with white color or white markings , and the skin is rosy-pink. The true, unpigmented pink skin associated with white markings is clearly visible against the rosy-pink skin of a double-dilute, especially when their coat is wetted down. The palest shades of double-dilute coats are just off-white, while

1120-565: Is a rare breed : its conservation status is considered critical by The Livestock Conservancy and the Equus Survival Trust . American Creams have refined heads, with flat facial profiles that are neither concave nor convex. They have wide chests, sloping shoulders and short, strong backs. Their ribs are well sprung, and they are short-coupled with well-muscled hindquarters and with strong well-proportioned legs set well apart. They are sure-footed with strong hooves , and their movement

1190-416: Is a recessive gene that affects only red pigment. When a single copy each of pearl and cream are present, the effect is quite similar to cremello. Dilutes combining the pearl gene with one copy of the cream gene are known as "pseudo-double dilutes" and produce a cream dilute phenotype that includes pale skin and blue/green eyes. DNA tests and patience are effective in determining which is the case. Some of

1260-483: Is a recording method or means of studbook selection for certain types to allow them to be licensed for breeding. Horses of a given type may be registered as one of several different recognized breeds, or a grouping may include horses that are of no particular pedigree but meet a certain standard of appearance or use. Prior to approximately the 13th century, few pedigrees were written down, and horses were classified by physical type or use. Thus, many terms for Horses in

1330-403: Is also found in other draft breeds. A DNA test was developed in 2002, and JEB can be avoided as long as two carriers are not bred to one another. The American Cream registry states that it has "been pro-active in testing its registered animals since JEB was discovered". The American Cream Draft descends from a foundation mare named Old Granny. She was probably foaled between 1900 and 1905, and

1400-493: Is also not found in breeds with stringent color requirements, such as the Friesian horse . Other coat colors may mimic the appearance of a cream coat color. The presence or absence of the cream gene can always be verified by the use of a DNA test. Also, as explained in "Mixed dilutes" below, horses may simultaneously carry more than one dilution gene. Dilution genes which, by themselves, may be confused with cream dilutions include

1470-406: Is also not related to any of the white spotting patterns. The cream gene ( C ) is an incomplete dominant allele with a distinct dosage effect. The DNA sequence responsible for the cream colors is the cream allele , which is at a specific locus on the solute carrier family 45 member 2 ( SLC45A2 ) gene (previously known as MATP and OCA4 , among others). Its general effect is to lighten

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1540-580: Is also seen in the Miniature horse , Akhal-Teke , Icelandic horse , Connemara pony , and Welsh pony . It is even found in certain lines of Thoroughbreds , warmbloods , and the Lusitano . The Andalusian horse has conflicting standards, with the cream gene being recognized by some registries, but not explicitly mentioned by others. The cream gene is completely absent from the Arabian horse gene pool, and

1610-605: Is consistent with the nature of the champagne blue foal eye, which is creamier than other types of blue eye. Champagne is a dominant trait, based on a mutation in the SLC36A1 gene. The mapping of the gene was announced in 2008, and the American Cream Draft cross was among the breeds studied. The authors of this study noted that it was difficult to distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous animals, thus distinguishing champagne from incomplete dominant dilutions such as

1680-407: Is easy to identify in buckskins, with their black points, but it is also visible in C /C homozygotes: perlinos (homozygous cream on a bay coat) often retain points that are a darker shade of cream. This unusual feature enables what are called cryptic creams . A certain percentage of dark bay , seal brown , and black horses exhibit such subtle dilution of their coats as to be misregistered. In

1750-420: Is either the only criterion for registration or the primary criterion. These are called " color breeds ", because unlike "true" horse breeds, there are few other physical requirements, nor is the stud book limited in any fashion. As a general rule, the color also does not always breed on (in some cases due to genetic impossibility), and offspring without the stated color are usually not eligible for recording with

1820-482: Is free and easy. According to enthusiasts, the breed has a calm, willing temperament, particularly suited for owners who are new to handling draft horses. Mares stand 15–16  hands (60–64 inches, 152–163 cm) high and weigh 1,500–1,600 pounds (680–730 kg), while stallions and geldings stand 16–16.3 hands (64–67 inches, 163–170 cm) and weigh 1,800 pounds (820 kg) or more. The ideal coat color for

1890-427: Is needed to produce the proper color. Champagne dilutes any base coat color, and in the American Cream Draft, the underlying genetic base color is chestnut. As of 2003, scientists have not found the breed to carry the cream gene, even though breeders refer to the desired color as "cream". The American Cream Draft is never cremello or white , and though the gold coat color with a white mane and tail resembles palomino ,

1960-530: Is only the reddish markings around the eyes, muzzle, elbow and groin, which are turned gold, that may give them away. Smoky black , a horse with a black base coat and one copy of the cream allele, is less well-known than the two golden shades. Since a single copy of the cream gene primarily affects red pigment, with only a subtle effect on black, smoky blacks can be quite difficult to identify. Smoky blacks may have reddish guard hairs inside their ears, and experienced horse persons may detect something "off" about

2030-453: Is particularly a common occurrence in the Connemara breed. Horses sold after turning fully gray may surprise breeders by producing golden or cream offspring. This effect - stronger expression on red pigment - is also seen in coat pattern genes in horses. In general, white markings are more pervasive in chestnuts than in non-chestnuts, to the extent that homozygous non-chestnuts (which carry

2100-506: The champagne gene . Horses with the dun gene also may mimic a single copy of the cream gene. To complicate matters further, it is possible for a horse to carry more than one type of dilution gene, sometimes giving rise to coloring that researchers call a pseudo double dilute. The discovery of the cream gene had a significant effect on breeding, allowing homozygous blue-eyed creams to be recognized by many breed registries that had previously registered palominos but banned cremellos, under

2170-401: The cream gene . However they noted that homozygotes may have less mottling or a slightly lighter hair color than heterozygotes. Anecdotal reports also note mild differences, including lighter freckling, skin and hair coat, though eye color remains the same. Dark-skinned American Cream Draft horses are actually chestnuts , as the breed is not homozygous for the champagne gene; only one allele

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2240-514: The endothelin receptor type B ( EDNRB ) gene is associated with the frame overo pattern produces Lethal white syndrome if homozygous, but carriers can be identified with a DNA test. The cream gene is found in many breeds. It is common in American breeds including the American Quarter Horse , Morgan , American Saddlebred , Tennessee Walking Horse , and Missouri Fox Trotter . It

2310-435: The silver dapple gene affects only black pigment, and pearl exhibits a recessive mode of inheritance and only affects red pigment. Unlike the cream gene, pearl does not seem to affect the mane and tail to a greater extent than the body coat, a feature of cream that is most vividly illustrated in the palomino coat color. This characteristic of the cream gene is also unexplained. The disparity in effects on red and black pigments

2380-569: The "Extension" (E) gene and may also carry the Agouti gene) were more modestly marked than non-chestnuts heterozygous for the E allele. This effect has also been identified and studied in the Leopard complex patterns. The SLC45A2 gene is best known in humans as being the location of a mutation that results in human type IV oculocutaneous albinism (OCA4). Type IV oculocutaneous albinism, like other types of human albinism, results in hypopigmentation of

2450-779: The Creams form a distinct group within the draft horses." The American Cream Draft was found to have a genetic relationship with the Belgian breed that was no closer than the ones it had with the Percheron, Suffolk Punch and Haflinger breeds. Registry records dating to the early 20th century show no bloodlines other than draft breeding. As of 2000 there were 222 registered horses, a number that increased to 350 as of 2004. Of these, 40 were "tracking horses" – either purebred American Creams that did not meet color requirements or crossbred horses that mix American Cream and other draft blood, but still meet

2520-458: The Middle Ages did not refer to breeds as we know them today, but rather described appearance or purpose. These terms included: Many breeds of horse have become extinct , either because they have died out, or because they have been absorbed into another breed: Cremello The cream gene is responsible for a number of horse coat colors . Horses that have the cream gene in addition to

2590-712: The US. The Equus Survival Trust also considers the population to be "critical", meaning that there are between 100 and 300 active adult breeding mares in existence today. To help replenish numbers, the ACDHA has developed regulations to permit foals to be registered when produced via methods such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer . Careful use of the appendix registry also allows numbers to increase. The American Creams that live in Colonial Williamsburg have been called "the most famous of all American Cream Draft horses". In

2660-505: The breed is a medium cream with pink skin, amber eyes and a white mane and tail. The characteristic cream color of the breed is produced by the champagne gene . Recognized colors include light, medium and dark cream, with amber or hazel eyes. A cream mare with dark skin and a light mane and tail may be accepted by the registry as foundation stock , while stallions must have pink skin and white manes and tails to be registered. Purebred American Cream foals that are too dark to be accepted into

2730-476: The breed or type categories are listed here. This list does not include organizations that record horses strictly for competition purposes. A "type" of horse is not a breed but is used here to categorize groups of horses or horse breeds that are similar in appearance ( phenotype ) or use. A type usually has no breed registry , and often encompasses several breeds. However, in some nations, particularly in Europe, there

2800-429: The breed's defining characteristics are the result of the champagne gene. The autosomal recessive genetic disease junctional epidermolysis bullosa (JEB) has been found in some American Cream Drafts. This is a lethal genetic disorder that causes newborn foals to lose large areas of skin and have other abnormalities, normally leading to euthanasia of the animal. It is most commonly associated with Belgian horses, but

2870-504: The breed, and the color is now known as gold champagne. In 1946, two years after the breed registry was formed, 98 percent of the horses registered could be traced back to Old Granny. In 1920, a colt of Old Granny's named Nelson's Buck No. 2 impressed veterinarian Eric Christian to the point that Christian asked the Nelsons not to geld him. They agreed to let him remain a stallion, and he sired several cream-colored foals, though only one

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2940-462: The coat is gold, while the black pigment is either unaffected or only subtly affected. These horses are usually palomino, buckskin, or smoky black. These horses often have light brown eyes. Horses with two copies of the cream allele also exhibit specific traits: cream-colored coats, pale blue eyes, and rosy-pink skin. These horses are usually called cremello, perlino, or smoky cream. Horses that are heterozygous creams, that is, have only one copy of

3010-421: The coat of a smoky black, though the slightly burnished look is often chalked up to sun bleaching, which can also be seen in true blacks. The palest can be mistaken for bays or liver chestnuts, especially if exposed to the elements. Smoky black coats tend to react strongly to sun and sweat, and many smoky blacks turn a chocolate color with particularly reddish manes and tails. Bleaching due to the elements means that

3080-463: The coat, skin and eye colors. When one copy of the allele is present, it dilutes "red" pigment to yellow or gold, with a stronger effect on the mane and tail, but does not dilute black color to any significant degree. When two copies of the allele are present, both red and black pigments are affected; red hairs still become cream, and black hairs become reddish. A single copy of the allele has minimal impact on eye color, but when two copies are present,

3150-602: The color breed registry. There are breeds that have color that usually breeds "true" as well as distinctive physical characteristics and a limited stud book. These horses are true breeds that have a preferred color, not color breeds, and include the Friesian horse , the Cleveland Bay , the Appaloosa , and the American Paint Horse . The best-known "color breed" registries that accept horses from many different breeds are for

3220-415: The cream gene, have a lightened hair coat. The precise cream dilute coat color produced depends on the underlying base coat color. Unless also affected by other, unrelated genes, they maintain dark skin and brown eyes, though some heterozygous dilutes may be born with pink skin that darkens with age. Some have slightly lighter, amber eyes. However, the heterozygous cream dilute (CR) must not be confused with

3290-424: The cream gene. This is also true of the normal variations in skin, hair and eye color encoded on the human SLC45A2 gene. True white coat coloring can be produced by at least half a dozen known genes, and some are associated with health defects. Some genes which encode a white or near-white coat when heterozygous , popularly called "dominant white," may be lethal in homozygote embryos. Another specific mutation on

3360-488: The cream mutation do not lack melanocytes, melanosomes, or melanins, but rather exhibit hypomelanism. Prior to the mapping of the cream gene, this locus was titled C for "color". There are two alleles in the series: the recessive , wildtype allele C and the incomplete dominant C . The C allele represents the N153D SLC45A2 mutation. Cream was first formally studied by Adalsteinsson in 1974, who reported that

3430-432: The darkest are distinctly rust-tinged. Their coats may be described as nearly white or ivory in addition to cream. The off-white coat, pale blue eyes, and rosy pink skin distinguish the coats of double-dilutes from those of true white horses . True white horses have unpigmented skin and hair due to the incomplete migration of melanocytes from the neural crest during development. No health defects are associated with

3500-523: The experience of breeders of palomino and buckskin horses indicated that blue-eyed cream offspring of these animals were not genetically defective, some of the research that took place nearly thirty years after Adalsteinsson's studies that identified the nature of cream dilution was directly supported by breed registries that had historically barred blue eyed creams. The cream gene's preferential effect on red pigment has not yet been explained. The champagne dilution affects both black and red pigments equally,

3570-414: The following colors: The distinction is hotly debated between a standardized breed, a developing breed with an open studbook , a registry of recognized crossbred horses, and a designer crossbred . For the purposes of this list, certain groups of horses that have an organization or registry that records individual animals for breeding purposes, at least in some nations, but does not clearly fall to either

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3640-412: The following: If a horse carries more than one type of dilution gene, additional cream mimics and other unique colors may occur. The combined effects of champagne and a single cream gene can be hard to distinguish from a double-dilute cream. Freckled skin and greenish eyes, or pedigree knowledge can yield clues, though the mystery can also be solved with a DNA test. The pearl gene or "barlink factor"

3710-478: The gold champagne body color, light skin, light eyes, and ivory mane and tail associated with the American Cream Draft are produced by the action of the champagne gene on a chestnut base coat. In the adult horse, the skin is pink with abundant dark freckles or mottling, and the eyes are hazel or amber. The eyes of champagne foals are blue at birth, darkening as they age, and a foal's skin is bright pink. The breed registry describes foals' eyes as "almost white", which

3780-520: The inheritance of palomino and buckskin coat colors in Icelandic horses followed a "semi-dominant" or incomplete dominant model. Adalsteinsson also noted that in heterozygotes, only the red pigment ( pheomelanin ) was diluted. The discovery that the palomino coat color was inextricably linked to the cream coat color was very significant. At one time, double dilutes, particularly cremellos, were barred from registration by many breed organizations. Cremello

3850-578: The late 1950s there were only 200 living American Creams registered, owned by only 41 breeders. The registry became inactive until 1982 when three families who had retained their herds reactivated and reorganized the registry. In 1994, the organization officially changed its name to the American Cream Draft Horse Association (ACDHA). In 1982, owners began blood-typing their horses, and by 1990, genetic testing found that "compared with other draft breeds and based upon gene marker data,

3920-493: The legs retain their color better, and can take on an appearance of having dark points like a bay horse. Smoky blacks, however, will lack rich red tones in the coat, instead favoring chocolate and orange tones. Because smoky blacks are often not recognized as such, breeders sometimes think that the cream gene "skipped" generations. While there are " color breed " registries for palomino and buckskin horses, which generally record horses based on apparent phenotype and do not require

3990-405: The main breed registry may be recorded into an appendix registry . The appendix will also accept half-bred Cream Draft horses crossed with other draft bloodlines if they meet certain requirements, and the registry provides an upgrade system that uses appendix horses to strengthen genes, increase breed numbers, and allow more diversified bloodlines. The champagne gene produces diluted color , and

4060-415: The mane, tail and legs, are generally unaffected. The cream gene acting on a "blood bay" coat, the reddest shade, are pale gold with black points. They are sometimes called buttermilk buckskins . The cream gene acting on the darkest bays (sometimes mistaken for seal browns) may dilute to a sooty buckskin . True seal brown buckskins can be very difficult to identify owing to their almost all-black coats. It

4130-608: The mistaken notion that homozygous cream was a form of albinism . Cream coat colors are described by their relationship to the three "base" coat colors: chestnut , bay , and black . All horses obtain two copies of the SLC45A2 gene; one from the sire, and one from the dam. A horse may have the cream allele or the non-cream allele on each gene. Those with two non-cream alleles will not exhibit true cream traits. Horses with one cream allele and one non-cream allele, popularly called "single dilutes," exhibit specific traits: all red pigment in

4200-458: The physical requirements for the registry. These tracking horses are allowed by certain regulations to be used as breeding stock, with the resulting foals able to be registered as purebred American Creams. Around 30 new horses are registered each year. The Livestock Conservancy considers the breed to be at "critical" status, meaning that the estimated global population of the breed is less than 500 and there are less than 200 registrations annually in

4270-483: The skin and eyes, with increased rates of skin cancer and reduced visual acuity. None of these effects are associated with the equine cream gene. Other human SLC45A2 polymorphisms result in normal pigment variations, specifically fair skin, light eyes, and light hair in Caucasian populations. A presumed knockout mutation in the same gene causes the phenotype of white tigers , which retain black striping though they lack

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4340-438: The study that mapped the cream gene, three horses registered as seal brown, dark bay or bay were actually smoky black and buckskin. This is one way by which the cream gene is transmitted through generations without being identified. Horses born palomino, buckskin, and smoky black, but also carry the gray gene, have a hair coat that turns white as they age and are usually registered as "gray" rather than as their birth color. This

4410-474: The terms used to describe these combinations include: The cream locus is on exon 2 of the SLC45A2 gene; a single nucleotide polymorphism results in an aspartic acid -to- asparagine substitution (N153D). The DNA test offered by various laboratories detects this mutation. The SLC45A2 gene encodes a protein illustrated to have roles in melanogenesis in humans, mice , and medaka . Mice affected by

4480-496: The village they are used for wagon and carriage rides, and as of 2006, there is a breeding program run by Colonial Williamsburg that is working to increase breed numbers. List of horse breeds While there is no scientifically accepted definition of the term "breed", a breed is generally defined as having distinct true-breeding characteristics over a number of generations. Its members may be called purebred . In most cases, bloodlines of horse breeds are recorded with

4550-607: Was Ead's Captain, whose bloodlines appear in about one-third of all American Cream Drafts. Around 1935, despite the Depression, a few breeders started to linebreed and inbreed cream-colored horses to fix their color and type. In particular, C.T. Rierson began buying cream-colored mares sired by Silver Lace and developing the American Cream breed in earnest. In 1944, a breed association, the American Cream Association,

4620-514: Was first noticed at an auction in Story County, Iowa , in 1911 and purchased by Harry Lakin, a well-known stock dealer. She was eventually sold to Nelson Brothers Farm in Jewell, Iowa . Her breeding is not known, but she was cream-colored and many of her foals were as well; they sold for above-average prices because of their color. Her cream-colored coat, pink skin and amber eyes are defining standards for

4690-578: Was formed by 20 owners and breeders and granted a corporate charter in the state of Iowa. In 1950, the breed was finally recognized by the Iowa Department of Agriculture, based on a 1948 recommendation by the National Stallion Enrollment Board . The mechanization of farming in the mid-20th century led to a decrease in the overall draft horse population, and with Rierson's death in 1957, American Cream Draft numbers began to decline. By

4760-480: Was not registered with any breed registry , his owners created a breeding syndicate , and mare owners who bought shares in the "Silver Lace Horse Company" could breed their mares to him. However, his main breeding career coincided with the economic struggles of the Great Depression , and Silver Lace was at one point hidden in a neighbor's barn to prevent his sale at auction. Another significant foundation stallion

4830-399: Was registered: a colt named Yancy No. 3, whose dam was a black mare of Percheron breeding. Yancy sired Knox 1st, born in 1926 to an unregistered bay mare of mixed Shire ancestry. From this sire line, in 1931, a great-great-grandson of Nelson's Buck was born, named Silver Lace No. 9. Silver Lace was to become one of the most influential stallions of the American Cream breed. His dam was

4900-463: Was thought by some to be a lethal white or albino coloring and a potential genetic defect. There also were known health implications of albinism in humans, and cultural prejudices; while a heroic figure such as Roy Rogers rode a golden palomino, the "Albino" in Mary O'Hara 's Thunderhead portrayed a horse with a freakish defect. These coat colors carried vastly different cultural significance. Because

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