The Amelia Island affair was an episode in the history of Spanish Florida .
65-526: The Embargo Act (1807) and the abolition of the American slave trade (1808) made Amelia Island , on the coast of northeastern Florida under Spanish rule, a resort for smugglers with sometimes as many as 150 ships in its harbor. In June, 1817, Gregor MacGregor , a Scottish adventurer styling himself the "Brigadier General of the United Provinces of New Granada and Venezuela , and General-in-Chief of
130-517: A constitution, and invited all Florida to unite in throwing off the Spanish yoke. For the few months that Aury controlled Amelia Island, the flag of the revolutionary Republic of Mexico was flown. This was the flag of his supposed clients who were still fighting the Spanish in their war for independence at the time. The United States, which had plans to annex the peninsula, sent a naval force which captured Amelia Island on December 23, 1817. Amelia Island
195-692: A lesser extent, for their navigation. They tried extralegal activities, a reduction in the size of the foreign fleet, and the redocumentation of foreign trading vessels into domestic carriage. Most importantly, they sought new domestic trading partners and took advantage of the political power of Jedidiah Huntington , the Customs Collector. Huntington was an influential member of the Connecticut leadership class (called "the Standing Order") and allowed scores of embargoed vessels to depart for foreign ports under
260-533: A more marked character of unfriendliness to us; the island being made a channel for the illicit introduction of slaves from Africa, into the United States, an asylum for fugitive slaves from the neighboring states, and a port for smuggling of every kind. Embargo Act The Embargo Act of 1807 was a general trade embargo on all foreign nations that was enacted by the United States Congress . As
325-547: A paper blockade of Britain but lacked a navy that could enforce it and seized American ships that obeyed British regulations. The Royal Navy needed large numbers of sailors, and was deeply angered at the American merchant fleet for being a haven for British deserters. British impressment of American sailors humiliated the United States, which showed it to be unable to protect its ships and their sailors. The British practice of taking British deserters, many of them now American citizens, from American ships and conscripting them into
390-405: A round across her bow . This was followed immediately by Leopard firing broadsides into the American ship. Her guns unloaded and her decks cluttered with stores in preparation for a long cruise, Chesapeake managed to fire only a single gun in reply. The humiliated Barron struck his colors and surrendered. Three of Chesapeake ' s crew had been killed and 18 wounded, including Barron, by
455-458: A successor or replacement law for the 1806 Non-importation Act and passed as the Napoleonic Wars continued, it represented an escalation of attempts to persuade Britain to stop any impressment of American sailors and to respect American sovereignty and neutrality but also attempted to pressure France and other nations in the pursuit of general diplomatic and economic leverage. In
520-593: The Chesapeake – Leopard affair outraged Americans. Congress imposed the embargo in direct response to these events. President Thomas Jefferson acted with restraint, weighed public support for retaliation, and recognized that the United States was militarily far weaker than either Britain or France. He recommended that Congress respond with commercial warfare, a policy that appealed to Jefferson both for being experimental and for foreseeably harming his domestic political opponents more than his allies, whatever its effect on
585-480: The Battle of Lexington have I seen this country in such a state of exasperation as at present, and even that did not produce such unanimity." James Monroe , then a foreign minister acting under instructions from U.S. Secretary of State James Madison, demanded British disavowal of the deed, the restoration of the four seamen, the recall of Admiral Berkeley, the exclusion of British warships from U.S. territorial waters, and
650-458: The Chesapeake and taken to Halifax, Nova Scotia , where the lone Briton was hanged while the three Americans were initially sentenced to 500 lashes. (American diplomatic pressure led to the return of the three Americans, without the dispensing of punishment.) The outraged nation demanded action, and President Jefferson ordered all British ships out of American waters. Passed on December 22, 1807,
715-618: The Chesapeake Mill in Wickham , England. The fallout from the Chesapeake – Leopard affair features prominently in two novels of the Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian . It is first mentioned in the fifth novel, Desolation Island , when the fictional Captain Jack Aubrey is given command of Leopard (which he privately refers to as the "horrible old Leopard ") a few years after
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#1733085653357780-677: The Gosport Navy Yard , then commanded by Stephen Decatur . Decatur received a letter from the British consul ordering him to turn over three men alleged to have deserted from HMS Melampus . The consul claimed the men had enlisted in the U.S. Navy, which was recruiting a crew for Chesapeake , then at the Washington Navy Yard outfitting for a voyage to the Mediterranean . Vice-Admiral Sir George Berkeley dispatched his flagship,
845-576: The Non-Intercourse Act . The law enabled the President, once the wars of Europe had ended, to declare the country sufficiently safe and to allow foreign trade with certain nations. In 1810, the government was ready to try yet another tactic of economic coercion, the desperate measure known as Macon's Bill Number 2 . The bill became law on May 1, 1810, and replaced the Non-Intercourse Act. It
910-636: The North American Station , blockading two French third-rate warships in Chesapeake Bay . A number of Royal Navy seamen had deserted from their ships and local American authorities gave them sanctuary. One of the deserters, a Londoner named Jenkin Ratford, joined the crew of USS Chesapeake . Ratford had made himself conspicuous to British officers by shouting at them on the streets of Norfolk, Virginia . Other deserters were reported to be at
975-406: The fourth-rate warship HMS Leopard , with written orders authorizing him to board and search the United States warship to recover any deserters. Berkeley ordered Leopard ' s captain to search for deserters from HMS Belleisle , HMS Bellona , HMS Triumph , HMS Chichester , HMS Halifax , and the cutter HMS Zenobia . Chesapeake was off
1040-722: The Act did the following: The shipping embargo was a cumulative addition to the Non-importation Act of 1806 (2 Stat. 379), which was a "Prohibition of the Importation of certain Goods and Merchandise from the Kingdom of Great Britain," the prohibited imported goods being defined where their chief value, which consists of leather, silk, hemp or flax, tin or brass, wool, glass, and paper goods, nails, hats, clothing, and beer. The Embargo Act of 1807
1105-589: The Armies of the Two Floridas", came to Amelia Island . A peripatetic military adventurer, MacGregor, purportedly commissioned by Simón Bolívar , had raised funds and troops for a full-scale invasion of Florida, but squandered much of the money on luxuries. As word of his conduct in the South American independence wars reached the United States, many of the recruits in his invasion force deserted. Nonetheless, he overran
1170-485: The British government into settling the matter. The United States Congress backed away from armed conflict when British envoys showed no contrition for the Chesapeake affair, delivering proclamations reaffirming impressment . Jefferson's political failure to coerce Great Britain led him toward economic warfare: the Embargo of 1807 . On June 22, 1807, during the Napoleonic Wars , several British naval vessels were on duty on
1235-546: The British. Chesapeake had fired only one shot. Four crew members were removed from the American vessel and were tried for desertion, one of whom was subsequently hanged. Chesapeake was allowed to return home, where James Barron was court martialed and relieved of command. The Chesapeake – Leopard affair created an uproar among Americans. There were strident calls for war with Great Britain, but these quickly subsided. President Thomas Jefferson initially attempted to use this widespread bellicosity to diplomatically threaten
1300-536: The Embargo Act. The slogans on the teapots were intended to reinforce the principles driving the government's ongoing embargo against Britain and France. A case study of Rhode Island shows the embargo to have devastated shipping-related industries, wrecked existing markets, and caused an increase in opposition to the Democratic–Republican Party . Smuggling was widely endorsed by the public, which viewed
1365-566: The European belligerents. The 10th Congress was controlled by his allies and agreed to the Act, which was signed into law on December 22, 1807. In terms of diplomacy, the Embargo failed to improve the American diplomatic position, and sharply increased international political tensions. Both widespread evasion of the embargo and loopholes in the legislation reduced its impact on its targets. British commercial shipping, which already dominated global trade,
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#17330856533571430-683: The Federalists were regaining strength and helped to convince Jefferson and Madison that the embargo should end. Shortly before leaving office in March 1809, Jefferson signed the repeal of the embargo. Despite its unpopular nature, the Embargo Act had one longterm positive impact. Unfulfilled domestic demand for manufactured goods stimulated the growth of the Industrial Revolution in the United States , resulting in an emerging American domestic manufacturing system. On March 1, 1809, Congress passed
1495-541: The North, and textile manufacturers began to make massive investments in cotton mills. However, as Britain still able to export to America particularly through Canada , that benefit did not immediately compensate for present loss of trade and economic momentum. A 2005 study by the economic historian Douglas Irwin estimates that the embargo cost about 5% of America's 1807 gross national product . Miniature engraved teapots were manufactured to bolster flagging popular support for
1560-616: The Royal Navy increased greatly after 1803, and it caused bitter anger in the United States. On June 21, 1807, an American warship, the USS Chesapeake , was boarded on the high seas off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia by a British warship, HMS Leopard . The Chesapeake had been carrying four deserters from the Royal Navy , three of them American and one British. The four deserters, who had been issued American papers, were removed from
1625-487: The United States but brought to Massachusetts, (possibly enslaved ) when he was six years old by mariner William Howland, from Buenos Aires . The brig Columbine brought the first dispatches to Halifax in early July. Leopard followed with her prisoners for trial. Jenkin Ratford, the sole British citizen, was sentenced to death and was hanged from the yardarm of Halifax on August 31, 1807. The three American deserters received sentences of 500 lashes each, but
1690-494: The abolition of impressments from vessels under the United States flag. The event raised tensions between the two countries and, while possibly not a direct cause, was one of the events leading up to the War of 1812 . Many Americans demanded war because of the attack, but President Jefferson turned to diplomacy and economic pressure in the form of the ill-fated Embargo Act of 1807 . The Federal government began to be concerned about
1755-525: The attack. However, Humphreys refused the surrender and sent a boarding party to Chesapeake to search for deserters. Scores of British nationals had signed on as crewmen of Chesapeake , but Humphreys seized only the four Royal Navy deserters: Daniel Martin, John Strachan and William Ware all from HMS Melampus , and Jenkin Ratford, formerly on HMS Halifax . Only Ratford was British-born. The others were American residents, but had been serving on British warships. Daniel Martin, for instance, claimed he
1820-488: The bill hindered US ships from leaving American ports bound for foreign trade, it had the side effect of hindering American exploration. Just weeks later, on January 8, 1808, legislation again passed the 10th Congress, Session 1; Chapter 8: "An Act supplementary..." to the Embargo Act (2 Stat. 453). As the historian Forrest McDonald wrote, "A loophole had been discovered" in the initial enactment, "namely that coasting vessels, and fishing and whaling boats" had been exempt from
1885-458: The coast of Norfolk, Virginia , on June 22, 1807, between the British fourth-rate HMS Leopard and the American frigate USS Chesapeake . The crew of Leopard pursued, attacked, and boarded the American frigate, looking for deserters from the Royal Navy . Chesapeake was caught unprepared and after a short battle involving broadsides received from Leopard , the commander of Chesapeake , James Barron , surrendered his vessel to
1950-578: The coast of Norfolk, Virginia, commanded by Commodore James Barron , when Leopard , under Captain Salusbury Pryce Humphreys , encountered and hailed her. Barron was not alarmed, and received Lieutenant John Meade on board, who presented Barron with the search warrant. After an inconclusive discussion, Meade returned to Leopard . Captain Humphreys, using a hailing trumpet, ordered the American ship to submit. When Chesapeake did not, Humphreys fired
2015-424: The country in the case of a war with Great Britain, despite the expensive and controversial frigate-building program . A court-martial blamed Barron and suspended him from service for five years as punishment. In 1820, Commodore Barron challenged and mortally wounded Commodore Stephen Decatur in a duel over remarks Decatur had made about Barron's conduct in 1807 (Barron was also wounded). Decatur had served on
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2080-568: The court-martial that found Barron guilty of being unprepared and barred him from command for five years. Chesapeake herself was captured during the War of 1812, when on June 1, 1813, after a series of naval engagements with the Royal Navy, the British frigate HMS Shannon captured Chesapeake in a single-ship action near Boston. The Royal Navy commissioned Chesapeake , but put her up for sale at Portsmouth in July 1819. Her timbers are now part of
2145-487: The defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814. The wars caused American relations with both Britain and France to deteriorate rapidly. There was grave risk of war with one or the other. With Britain supreme on the sea and France on the land, the war developed into a struggle of blockade and counterblockade. The commercial war peaked in 1806 and 1807. Britain's Royal Navy shut down most European harbors to American ships unless they first traded through British ports. France declared
2210-532: The dual effect of severely curtailing American overseas trade, while forcing industrial concerns to invest new capital into domestic manufacturing in the United States. In commercial New England and the Middle Atlantic, ships sat idle. In agricultural areas, particularly the South, farmers and planters could not sell crops internationally. The scarcity of European goods stimulated American manufacturing, particularly in
2275-599: The eastern coast. Most merchants and shippers simply ignored the laws. On the Canada–United States border , especially in Upstate New York and in Vermont, the embargo laws were openly flouted. Federal officials believed parts of Maine, such as Passamaquoddy Bay on the border with the British territory of New Brunswick , were in open rebellion. By March, an increasingly-frustrated Jefferson had become resolved to enforce
2340-580: The embargo as a violation of its rights. Public outcry continued and helped the Federalists regain control of the state government in 1808–1809. The case is a rare example of American national foreign policy altering local patterns of political allegiance. Despite its unpopular nature, the Embargo Act had some limited unintended benefits to the Northeast, especially by driving capital and labor into New England textile and other manufacturing industries, which lessened America's reliance on British trade. In Vermont,
2405-709: The embargo hurt the United States as much as it did Britain and France. Britain, expecting to suffer most from the American regulations, built up a new South American market for its exports, and the British shipowners were pleased that American competition had been removed by the action of the US government. Jefferson placed himself in a strange position with his embargo policy. Though he had frequently argued for as little government intervention as possible, he now found himself assuming extraordinary powers in an attempt to enforce his policy. The presidential election of 1808 had James Madison defeat Charles Cotesworth Pinckney but showed that
2470-404: The embargo to the letter. On March 12, 1808, Congress passed and Jefferson signed into law yet another supplement to the Embargo Act. It prohibited for the first time all exports of any goods, whether by land or by sea. Violators were subject to a fine of $ 10,000, plus forfeiture of goods, per offense. It granted the President broad discretionary authority to enforce, deny, or grant exceptions to
2535-668: The embargo was doomed to failure on the Lake Champlain–Richeleiu River water route because of the state's dependence on a Canadian outlet for produce. At St. John, Lower Canada, £140,000 worth of goods smuggled by water were recorded there in 1808, a 31% increase over 1807. Shipments of ashes to make soap nearly doubled to £54,000, but those of lumber dropped by 23% to £11,200. Manufactured goods, which had expanded to £50,000 since Jay's Treaty in 1795, fell by over 20%, especially articles made near tidewater. Newspapers and manuscripts recorded more lake activity than usual, despite
2600-417: The embargo's exciting game of revenuers versus smugglers, which brought high profits, versus mundane, low-profit normal trade. The New England merchants who evaded the embargo were imaginative, daring, and versatile in their violation of federal law. Gordinier (2001) examines how the merchants of New London, Connecticut, organized and managed the cargoes purchased and sold and the vessels that were used during
2665-432: The embargo, and they had been circumventing it, primarily via Canada . The supplementary act extended the bonding provision (Section 2 of the initial Embargo Act) to those of purely-domestic trades: Meanwhile, Jefferson requested authorization from Congress to raise 30,000 troops from the current standing army of 2,800, but Congress refused. With their harbors for the most part unusable in the winter anyway, New England and
Amelia Island affair - Misplaced Pages Continue
2730-465: The embargo. Port authorities were authorized to seize cargoes without a warrant and to try any shipper or merchant who was thought to have merely contemplated violating the embargo. Despite the added penalties, citizens and shippers openly ignored the embargo. Protests continued to grow and so the Jefferson administration requested and Congress rendered yet another embargo act. The immediate effect of
2795-498: The fall of 1810. Though Napoleon did not fulfill his promise, the strained Anglo-American relations prevented him from being brought to task for his duplicity. The attempts of Jefferson and Madison to secure recognition of American neutrality via peaceful means gained a belated success in June 1812, when Britain finally promised to repeal their 1807 Orders in Council . The British concession
2860-604: The first decade of the 19th century, American shipping grew. During the Napoleonic Wars, rival nations Britain and France targeted neutral American shipping as a means of disrupting the trade of the other nation. American merchantmen who were trading with "enemy nations" were seized as contraband of war by European navies. The British Royal Navy had impressed American sailors who had either been British-born or previously served on British ships, even if they now claimed to be American citizens with American papers. Incidents such as
2925-475: The guise of "special permission". Old modes of sharing vessel ownership to share the risk proved to be difficult to modify. Instead, established relationships continued through the embargo crisis despite numerous bankruptcies. Jefferson's Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin , was against the entire embargo and foresaw correctly the impossibility of enforcing the policy and the negative public reaction. "As to
2990-400: The hope that it may... induce England to treat us better," wrote Gallatin to Jefferson shortly after the bill had become law, "I think is entirely groundless... government prohibitions do always more mischief than had been calculated; and it is not without much hesitation that a statesman should hazard to regulate the concerns of individuals as if he could do it better than themselves." Since
3055-432: The incident. Though the United States and Great Britain are at peace at the time, and neither he nor any member of his crew had any direct involvement with the affair, he is met with mistrust and hostility from American whalers due to their negative association with the ship. The subsequent capture of Chesapeake during the War of 1812 features prominently in the sixth Aubrey–Maturin novel, The Fortune of War , as Aubrey
3120-582: The island with a small force, but left for Nassau in September. His followers were soon joined by Louis-Michel Aury , formerly associated with MacGregor in South American adventures, and previously one of the leaders of a group of buccaneers on Galveston Island , Texas . After assuming control of Amelia, Aury created an administrative body called the "Supreme Council of the Floridas", directed his secretaries Pedro Gual Escandón and Vicente Pazos Kanki to draw up
3185-497: The lack of war material. Their concerns led to the establishment of a tariff protecting the manufacturers of gunpowder, which helped ensure the fortunes of the DuPont company. The incident had significant repercussions for the U.S. Navy. The public was shocked that Chesapeake had not been able to put up any resistance and surrendered so quickly, questioning the ability of the Navy to defend
3250-495: The northern ports of the mid-Atlantic states had paid little notice to the previous embargo acts. That was to change with the spring thaw and the passing of yet another embargo act. With the coming of the spring, the effect of the previous acts were immediately felt throughout the coastal states, especially in New England. An economic downturn turned into a depression and caused increasing unemployment. Protests occurred up and down
3315-489: The onset of war, the Embargo Act of 1813 was signed into law December 17, 1813. Four new restrictions were included: an embargo prohibiting all American ships and goods from leaving port, a complete ban on certain commodities customarily produced in the British Empire, a ban against foreign ships trading in American ports unless 75% of the crew were citizens of the ship's flag, and a ban on ransoming ships. The Embargo of 1813
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#17330856533573380-432: The outbreak of the War of 1812. The incident outraged American public opinion, and many felt the country's "sense of honor" had been violated. Americans of every political stripe spoke of the need to uphold national honor, and to reject the dismissal of the United States by Britain as a third-class nonentity. Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response. President Thomas Jefferson noted: "Never since
3445-485: The sentences were later commuted. The bloody encounter caused a storm of protest from the U.S. government, and the British government eventually offered to return the three American residents and to pay reparations for the damage to Chesapeake . After over 5 years spent in bonded service with the Royal Navy, the last two deserters were returned to Boston , Massachusetts by the schooner HMS Bream , one month after
3510-488: The textile industry, and marked the beginning of the manufacturing system in the United States, reducing the nation's dependence upon imported manufactured goods. Americans opposed to the Act launched bitter protests, particularly in New England commercial centers. Support for the declining Federalist Party , which intensely opposed Jefferson, temporarily rebounded and drove electoral gains in 1808 ( Senate and House ). In
3575-420: The theoretical reduction in shipping that should accompany an embargo. The smuggling was not restricted to water routes, as herds were readily driven across the uncontrollable land border. Southbound commerce gained two thirds overall, but furs dropped a third. Customs officials maintained a stance of vigorous enforcement throughout, and Gallatin's Enforcement Act (1809) was a party issue. Many Vermonters preferred
3640-495: The waning days of Jefferson's presidency , the Non-Intercourse Act lifted all embargoes on American shipping except for cargos bound for British or French ports. Enacted on March 1, 1809, it exacerbated tensions with Britain and eventually led to the War of 1812 . After a short truce between the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars during 1802–1803, the European conflicts resumed and continued until
3705-400: The years before, during, and after the embargo. Trade routes and cargoes, both foreign and domestic, along with the vessel types, and the ways that their ownership and management were organized show the merchants of southeastern Connecticut evinced versatility in the face of crisis. Gordinier (2001) concludes that the versatile merchants sought alternative strategies for their commerce and, to
3770-521: Was an acknowledgment of the failure of economic pressure to coerce the European powers. Trade with both Britain and France was now thrown open, and the US attempted to bargain with the two belligerents. If either power removed its restrictions on American commerce, the US would reapply non-intercourse against the power that had not done so. Napoleon quickly took advantage of that opportunity. He promised that his Berlin and Milan Decrees would be repealed, and Madison reinstated non-intercourse against Britain in
3835-464: Was born in Westport, Massachusetts ; he was described as age 24, 5 feet 5 + 1 ⁄ 2 inches (166 cm) high with " woolly hair ", black eyes and dark yellow complexion and a small scar over his right eyebrow. Prior to serving on Chesapeake , Martin served on the merchant vessel Caledonia and was described as "a colored man ." Newspaper accounts of the time state Martin was not born in
3900-491: Was codified at 2 Stat. 451 and formally titled "An Embargo laid on Ships and Vessels in the Ports and Harbours of the United States". The bill was drafted at the request of President Thomas Jefferson and was passed by the 10th Congress on December 22, 1807, during Session 1; Chapter 5. Congress initially acted to enforce a bill prohibiting only imports, but supplements to the bill eventually banned exports as well. The embargo had
3965-526: Was moot. On February 15, 1815, Madison signed the Enemy Trade Act of 1815 , which was tighter than any previous trade restriction including the Enforcement Act of 1809 (January 9) and the Embargo of 1813, but it would expire two weeks later when official word of peace from Ghent was received. Chesapeake%E2%80%93Leopard affair The Chesapeake – Leopard affair was a naval engagement off
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#17330856533574030-477: Was successfully adapting to Napoleon's Continental System by pursuing new markets, particularly in the restive Spanish and Portuguese colonies in South America. Thus, British merchants were well-positioned to grow at American expense when the embargo sharply reduced American trade activity. The Act's prohibition on imports stimulated the growth of nascent US domestic industries across the board, particularly
4095-401: Was the nation's last great trade restriction. Never again would the US government cut off all trade to achieve a foreign policy objective. The Act particularly hurt the Northeast since the British kept a tighter blockade on the South and thus encouraged American opposition to the administration. To make his point, the Act was not lifted by Madison until after the defeat of Napoleon, and the point
4160-561: Was too late since when the news had reached America, the United States had already declared the War of 1812 against Britain. America's declaration of war in mid-June 1812 was followed shortly by the Enemy Trade Act of 1812 on July 6, which employed similar restrictions as previous legislation. it was likewise ineffective and tightened in December 1813 and debated for further tightening in December 1814. After existing embargoes expired with
4225-528: Was viewed by the U.S. as a "colony of pirates and slave traders" who were prone to violating the 1808 Prohibition on the Importation of Slaves .In his December 2, 1817, message to the 15th United States Congress , President James Monroe described the affair as "a mere private, unauthorized adventure": Projected and commenced with an incompetent force, reliance seems to have been placed on what might be drawn, in defiance of our laws, from within our limits; and of late, as their resources have failed, it has assumed
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