41-412: Amanita Amarrendia Catatrama Limacella Limacellopsis Saproamanita Torrendia Zhuliangomyces The Amanitaceae is a family of mushroom -forming fungi . Amanita Pers. is one of the most speciose and best-known fungal genera. The family, also commonly called the amanita family, is in order Agaricales , the gilled mushrooms. The family consists primarily of
82-460: A Hellenistic city. It has been suggested that in terms of fortifications, masonry and general architecture, language and religion Amantia shares the same features as the rest of the settlements of the Greek world of that time. But it has been also assumed that like other Illyrian cities Amantia, was not a polis of the Greek type. Amantia was among the main cities and tribal centres of Epirus during
123-405: A Hellenistic city. Mesihović (2014) has described Amantia as an Illyrian city built and governed according to the Greek model. Papadopoulos (2016) described it as an indigenous site that by the 4th century BC or later developed into a city very much organised on a Greek model. According to Lippert and Matzinger (2021), like other Illyrian cities, Amantia was not a polis of the Greek type. In
164-1719: A member of Amanita unless the species is known with absolute certainty. Because so many species within this genus are so deadly toxic, if a specimen is identified incorrectly, consumption may cause extreme sickness and possibly death. Edible species of Amanita include Amanita fulva , Amanita vaginata (grisette), Amanita calyptrata (coccoli), Amanita crocea , Amanita rubescens (blusher), Amanita caesarea (Caesar's mushroom), and Amanita jacksonii (American Caesar's mushroom). Inedible species of Amanita include Amanita albocreata (ringless panther), Amanita atkinsoniana , Amanita citrina (false death cap), Amanita excelsa , Amanita flavorubescens , Amanita franchetii , Amanita longipes , Amanita onusta , Amanita rhopalopus , Amanita silvicola , Amanita sinicoflava , Amanita spreta , and Amanita volvata . Poisonous species include Amanita brunnescens , Amanita cokeri (Coker's amanita), Amanita crenulata , Amanita farinosa (eastern American floury amanita), Amanita frostiana , Amanita muscaria (fly agaric), Amanita pantherina (panther cap), and Amanita porphyria , but not Amanita ceciliae . Deadly poisonous species include Amanita abrupta , Amanita arocheae , Amanita bisporigera (eastern NA destroying angel), Amanita exitialis (Guangzhou destroying angel), Amanita magnivelaris , Amanita ocreata (western NA destroying angel), Amanita phalloides (death cap), Amanita proxima , Amanita smithiana , Amanita subjunquillea (East Asian death cap), Amanita verna (fool's mushroom), and Amanita virosa (European destroying angel). Amanita muscaria
205-478: Is considered a synonym of Agaricus L. The name is possibly derived from Amanus ( Ancient Greek : Ἁμανός ), a mountain in Cilicia , or from Amantia , an ancient city in the transboundary region between Epirus or southern Illyria in antiquity. Several members of the section Phalloidieae are notable for their toxicity, containing toxins known as amatoxins , which can cause liver failure and death. These include
246-525: Is futile to approach ancient cults in ethnic or national terms. The South of the Adriatic is clearly a region of religious exchanges, in which facts must be shifted, before considering them to belong to just one culture. The Illyrian - Greek cult of the nymphs was widespread in the region as well as in Amantia. An ancient sanctuary of the eternal fire called Nymphaion was located in an area near Amantia and
287-646: Is linked to the Illyrian movements via the Adriatic ( Iapygians ) in antiquity. A homonymous Illyrian tribe lived in eastern Slavonia . The earliest of the written sources that recorded the toponym Amantia is the Periplus of Pseudo-Skylax (4th century BC), mentioning it as a city in Illyria. By listing it as the only site between the two poleis of Apollonia and Orikos , the account of Pseudo-Skylax suggests that Amantia
328-550: Is not well known, and it seems to have not had its own writing system. Amantia's urban organization occurred at a period of wider evolution among the settlements of the broader area of Epirus as a result of the previous development among Molossian cities. The first inscriptions in Amantia appear in the 4th century BC, during the Hellenistic era , and are in Greek. The onomastics are mainly Greek, with some non-Greek names. The local culture readily borrowed iconography and technique from
369-464: The Amantes . Amantia's prosperity during the Hellenistic era could explain the bilingualism of the settlement in that period. On the basis of language, institutions, officials, onomastics, city-planning and fortifications it has been described as a Greek city by historians N.G.L. Hammond (1989), Šašel Kos (1986), Hatzopoulos (1997), Rudolf Haensch (2012), and as a Greek city in southern Illyria, in
410-503: The Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax (mid. 4th century BCE), as Epirotes by Proxenos (3rd century B.C) and by Hesychius, and as barbarians by Pliny the Elder . It is situated on the slope of a high hill and had only its acropolis fortified. The massive walls of Amantia are considered of Illyrian foundation and are dated to before the end of the 4th century BC. The city was built around 450 BC on
451-508: The Roman era , the use of Greek by the Romans to address the natives was seen not only as a gesture of good will, but also as an effort to promote rapprochement between those communities. A 2nd century AD bilingual inscription in Greek and Latin dating back to Imperial times is found above the fountain of Ploça village. It shows that the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia in 148 BC led to
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#1733093526180492-560: The Roman province of Macedonia and then Epirus Novus . Throughout the Roman period, Amantia was a civitas libera . Amantia was among the thriving settlements of Epirus during the last two centuries B.C. Eulalius, one of the Eastern bishops at the Council of Sardica who refused to recognize its right to revoke the condemnation of Athanasius of Alexandria and withdrew in a body to Philippopolis ,
533-474: The universal veil . This family contains several species valued for edibility and flavor, and other deadly poisonous ones. More than half the cases of mushroom poisoning stem from members of this family. The most toxic members of this group have names that warn of the poisonous nature, but others, of varying degrees of toxicity, do not. Amanita Amanitopsis Roze The genus Amanita contains about 600 species of agarics , including some of
574-522: The Aoos valley in the hinterland of Aulon. Pausanias' data have been compared with the information provided by an Apollonian commemorative monument, suggesting an "oppositional ethnicity" between the Greek colonial associations of the Bay of Aulon (i.e. the area called Abantis ), and the barbarians of the hinterland. Amantia was located on the territory of the Amantes , who were described as an Illyrian people in
615-566: The Greeks. Many cults of Amantia are of the typical Greek pantheon, such as Zeus , Aphrodite , Pandemos and Pan . The cult of Aphrodite probably dates from the archaic era – with Amantia being in such a case among the first settlements in the region to worship the goddess – or from the Hellenistic era along with the cult of Athena . The temple of Aphrodite in Amantia is an example of the Hellenistic influence in present-day Albania via contact with
656-538: The Hellenistic period. At the second half of the 4th century Amantia received sacred theoroi ambassadors from Argos , southern Greece, indicator that the locals were treated as Greek. By the 3rd century BC, the town was strengthened economically and minted its own coins. In 230 BC Amantia joined the Koinon of the Epirotes . The fact that Amantia received theoroi from Delphi during the early 2nd century BC, indicates that it
697-595: The death cap A. phalloides ; species known as destroying angels , including A. virosa , A. bisporigera and A. ocreata ; and the fool's mushroom, A. verna . More recently, a series in the subgenus Lepidella has been found to cause acute kidney failure, including A. smithiana of northwestern North America, A. pseudoporphyria of Japan, and A. proxima of southern Europe. Although many species of Amanita are edible, including all of sect. Caesareae and sect. Vaginatae (together comprising hundreds of species), many fungi experts advise against eating
738-451: The early 2nd century BC, which only cities that were considered Greek were eligible to receive. The time duration that passed before Illyrian cities were documented on a list of theorodokoi clarifies that acculturation did take place in southern Illyria; however, it indicates that the process was gradual. Amantia occupied an important defensive position above the Aoos/Vjosë river valley to
779-513: The east, and on the road to the coast and the Bay of Aulon . At the archaeological site of Ploçë, a temple dedicated to Aphrodite , a theatre, and a stadium have also been found. Pseudo-Skylax ( Periplus . 26) and Lycophron ( Alexandra . 1043) recorded the toponym Ἀμάντια, Amantia . The Delphic list of theorodokoi reported the form Ἀβάντια, Abantia . The city-ethnic is recorded as Ἀμάντιεύς, Amantieus by Pseudo Skylax (27). The town's demonym
820-456: The government of Albania. The massive walls of Amantia were built before the end of the 4th century BC, and literary sources report them as an Illyrian rather than Epirote or Macedonian foundation. Later Amantia acquired the trappings of a Hellenistic town. In 230 BC Amantia became part of the Koinon Epirus . Amantia received sacred ancient Greek envoys, known as theoroi , around
861-415: The iconographies of this deity were derivations of Egyptian or Italic iconographies ( Bes - Silenus ), mainly from the Greek colony of Taras , which were widespread in the region from the 4th century BC, but enriched with very stylistic innovations. In the Roman period this deity has undergone transformations mainly of Eastern influence. Some label this deity as the Illyrian god of fertility. In reality, it
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#1733093526180902-435: The installation of Latin-speaking populations as far as Amantia. The bilingual inscription can also testify that in the ancient site of Ploça there was a Latin enclave and that the city prospered around 200 AD; it could also be the nature of the text that required the use of both languages. The numismatic material unearthed at Amantia shows that the more numerous coins were of republican Epirote origin, followed by coins with
943-616: The island Othronos and were driven by swarms of snakes to the land of the Atintanes towards the city of Amantia. It has been suggested that the data from Pausanias is more in accordance with the settlement of the Euboean colony in Thronion in the coastal site of Triport located in front of the Acroceraunian Mountains northwest of Aulon , not in Amantia in the site of Ploç located south of
984-443: The large genus Amanita , but also includes the smaller genera Amarrendia , Catatrama , Limacella , Limacellopsis , Saproamanita , Torrendia and Zhuliangomyces . Both Amarrendia and Torrendia are considered to be synonymous with Amanita but appear quite different because they are secotioid. The species are usually found in woodlands. The most characteristic emerge from an egg-like structure formed by
1025-568: The larger local edible species of Amanita are mainstays of the markets in the local growing season. Samples of this are Amanita zambiana and other fleshy species in central Africa , A. basii and similar species in Mexico , A. caesarea and the "Blusher" A. rubescens in Europe , and A. chepangiana in Southeast Asia . Other species are used for colouring sauces, such as
1066-581: The legend on the coins was changed from ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ (of the Epirotes) to ΑΜΑΝΤΩΝ (of the Amantes), both written in Greek letters. The organisation of Amantia is quite similar to that of a polis rather than of a federal state. The local official titles and institutions display typical names of a Greek settlement of that time, such as: prytanis ( Greek : πρύτανις , "the one that presides"), grammateus ( Greek : γραμματεύς , "secretary"), toxarchis, agonothetes and
1107-459: The local legend, which were fewer in number. The territorial proximity to the koinon of the Epirotes explains the predominant role of the coins of this neighbouring state. The symbols that appear on the bronze coins of Amantia are Zeus / thunderbolt , Dione / trident , and Artemis / spearhead , which were taken from Epirus. The community of the Amantes seceded from the Epirote state only at
1148-474: The main settlement of the Amantes , traditionally located in southern Illyria in classical antiquity. In Hellenistic times the city was either part of Illyria or Epirus . In Roman times it was included within Epirus Nova , in the province of Macedonia . The site has been identified with the village of Ploçë , Vlorë County , Albania. Amantia was designated as an archaeological park on 7 April 2003 by
1189-422: The moment of the fall of the monarchy. At the time of Pyrrhus , his son Alexander II and his descendants, Greater Epirus was still strong and controlled both southern Illyria in the north and part of Acarnania in the south. In this context it is no wonder that the bronze coins of Amantia, starting from 230 BC, used symbols of the Epirote tradition with which the inhabitants of the city were accustomed, and only
1230-559: The most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species (and many species of unknown edibility). The genus is responsible for approximately 95% of fatalities resulting from mushroom poisoning , with the death cap accounting for about 50% on its own. The most potent toxin present in these mushrooms is α-Amanitin . The genus also contains many edible mushrooms, but mycologists discourage mushroom hunters, other than experts, from selecting any of these for human consumption. Nonetheless, in some cultures,
1271-410: The nearby Greek colonies. The cult of Heracles has been also confirmed in the city. Apollo was also among the prominent deities worshipped in Amantia as in the nearby Corinthian colonies and surrounding settlements in today's northweestern Greece and southern Albania, but also in nearby Molossian towns. Other cults like that of the male fertility deity are common of southern Illyria. It seems that
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1312-478: The red A. jacksonii , with a range from eastern Canada to eastern Mexico. The genus Amanita was first published with its current meaning by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1797. Under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature , Persoon's concept of Amanita , with Amanita muscaria (L.) Pers. as the type species, has been officially conserved against the older Amanita Boehm (1760), which
1353-557: The settlement was founded by Locrians from nearby Thronium and Abantes from Euboea . Stephanus Byzantius – based on Pausanias – mentions that Amantia was founded on Illyrian territory by the Euboean Abantes "returning from the Trojan war". According to another legend reported by Lycophron in his Alexandra , Elpenor – who actually died at Troy – and the Abantes from Euboea went to
1394-413: The site of a proto-urban settlement. Already from the beginning it had a fortified acropolis that was surrounded by a 2.1 km long wall, with also a lower town. The original walls made of irregularly slammed limestone were renewed in the 4th century with isodomic ashlar layers. By the 4th century or later, the indigenous site became a town very much organised on a Greek model, acquiring the trappings of
1435-409: The territory of the Illyrian tribe of Amantes by Fanula Papazoglou (1986). It has been described as a Hellenized Illyrian city-state by Eckstein (2008), and Lasagni (2019), and as an Illyrian city by Olgita Ceka (2012), and Jaupaj (2019). Winnifrith considered the massive walls of Amantia as of Illyrian rather than Epirote or Macedonian foundation, and that the site later acquired the trappings of
1476-543: Was Amantieus ( Ancient Greek : Ἀμάντιεύς ). The name Amantia and the tribal name Amantes have been connected with the Albanian term amë/ãmë ("river-bed, fountain, spring"). It has been suggested that the root morpheme *Amant- was perhaps a "barbarized" version of *Abant- in relation to the Abantes . The name Amantia is generally accepted as Illyrian . The toponym corresponds to Amantia in southern Italy which
1517-519: Was listed among the Greek cities in the area north of the Acroceraunian mountains. In 168 BC during the 3rd Illyrian-Roman War Amantia supported the Roman side. In the middle of the 2nd century BC Amantia was found in alliance with Apollonia, most probably as part of a united pro-Roman policy against various Illyrian states. Following the Roman annexation of the region (148 BC), the city became part of
1558-401: Was not practiced by these peoples. Amanita pantherina contains the psychoactive compound muscimol , but is used as an entheogen much less often than its much more distinguishable relative A. muscaria . Other species identified as containing psychoactive substances include: Amantia Amantia ( Ancient Greek : Ἀμάντια, Ἀβάντια ; Latin : Amantia ) was an ancient city and
1599-465: Was probably bishop of this town, but some think he was bishop of Amasea . During the early 4th century a basilica was erected. No longer a residential bishopric , Amantia is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see . Amantia is an archaeological park of Albania , designed as such on 7 April 2003 by the government of Albania . The culture of the region had a language that
1640-520: Was somehow important. It seems that in the Periplus the toponym Amantia denotes the territory rather than the urban center of the polis. It has been suggested that in the Periplus Orikos is identified as a Greek city placed in the territory of Amantia, the latter being regarded as an Illyrian city. Lycophron's Alexandra (3rd century BC) attests Amantia as a polis in the urban sense. A tradition reported by Pausanias (2nd century AD) alleges that
1681-640: Was widely used as an entheogen by many of the indigenous peoples of Siberia . Its use was known among almost all of the Uralic -speaking peoples of western Siberia and the Paleosiberian -speaking peoples of the Russian Far East . There are only isolated reports of A. muscaria use among the Tungusic and Turkic peoples of central Siberia and it is believed that on the whole entheogenic use of A. muscaria