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116-640: The college was founded by Michigan Presbyterians in 1886. It received funding from lumber magnate Ammi W. Wright , for whom Wright Hall on campus and Wright Avenue in the city of Alma are named. A marker designating the college as a Michigan Historic Site was erected by the Michigan History Division, Department of State . The inscription reads: On October 26, 1886, the Presbyterian Synod of Michigan accepted an offer by Ammi W. Wright of Alma of thirty acres of land, containing two buildings, and

232-632: A synod sometimes exists. This congregation / presbytery / synod / general assembly schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the Church of Scotland or the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) ; some bodies, such as the Presbyterian Church in America and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland , skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually

348-572: A 4-4-1 academic calendar, with 14-week terms in the fall and winter, and a four-week term in May. Students typically use the latter term, known on-campus as Spring Term, for travel, classes, research and internships. Alma College in 2021 launched the first graduate program in its then-134-year history with the Master of Fine Arts in Creative Writing degree, led by author and educator Sophfronia Scott. In 2022,

464-540: A call for the pastor or minister's service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery. The pastor or minister is a teaching elder, and Moderator of the Session, but is not usually a member of the congregation; instead, this person is a member of the Presbytery of which the given church is a member. Ruling elders are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for

580-655: A chaplaincy by the PCofE and the Church of Scotland in 1908 and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929), continue as congregations of the URC and university chaplaincies of the Church of Scotland . In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of church government have organised in England, including the International Presbyterian Church planted by evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer of

696-604: A full-length Old English style surplice which resembles the Celtic alb, an ungirdled liturgical tunic of the old Gallican Rite ), which some, particularly those identifying with the Liturgical Renewal Movement, hold to be more ancient and representative of a more ecumenical past. Presbyterians traditionally have held the Worship position that there are only two sacraments : Some early Presbyterians, which were influenced by

812-468: A gift of $ 50,000 from Alexander Folsom of Bay City, for the purpose of establishing Alma College. The Synod had resolved: "We will, with God's help, establish and endow a college within our bounds." A charter was granted by the state of Michigan, April 15, 1887. Classes began September 12, 1887. In the first year there were 95 students and nine faculty members. Here the Presbyterian Church has fostered

928-479: A large conference room designed for distance room and a seminar room. The DDSC sponsors summer camps for elementary, middle and high school students in the area. The college in 2019 dedicated the Wright Leppien Opera House Block, a historic structure in downtown Alma which had been gutted by a fire almost a decade earlier. "The Opera House," as it is locally known, was historically considered to be

1044-607: A major split, the Salter's Hall controversy , occurred; with the majority siding with nontrinitarian views. Thomas Bradbury published several sermons bearing on the controversy, and in 1719, "An answer to the reproaches cast on the dissenting ministers who subscribed their belief of the Eternal Trinity." By the 18th century many English Presbyterian congregations had become Unitarian in doctrine. A number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by Scottish immigrants to England in

1160-454: A number of different Sphagnum species. An individual Sphagnum plant consists of a main stem , with tightly arranged clusters of branch fascicles usually consisting of two or three spreading branches and two to four hanging branches. The top of the plant ( capitulum) has compact clusters of young branches that give the plant its characteristic tuft-like appearance. Along the stem are scattered leaves of various shapes, named stem leaves;

1276-427: A red brick motif, are centered around a large square, McIntyre Mall. West of this mall is picturesque Thomas Andison Chapel. The majority of buildings are located on North Campus, that is, the area north of Superior Street. These include the major dormitory residences, as well as the academic and student life buildings. South Campus is home to suite-style residences ("New Dorms," so named because they were built later in

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1392-469: A revolt against modernist doctrine in his Christianity and Liberalism (1923) that critiqued theological modernism. He argued that modernism and liberal theology was a false religion, a pretender that cloaks itself in Christian language – "Liberalism". This religion is a marriage of naturalism, humanism, secularism, and sentimentalism all rolled into one. Presbyterian denominations that trace their heritage to

1508-453: A striking facade clad in limestone and punctuated by large windows, alongside abstract stained-glass windows. Both of these were designed by famed architect Harold E. Wagoner . Usually a Presbyterian church will not have statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more typical of a Catholic church. Instead, there is a "communion table", usually on the same level as the congregation, and sometimes elevated similar to an altar, however surrounded by

1624-524: A surgical dressing , published in Science in 1918, was instrumental in the acceptance of Sphagnum moss use as a medical dressing in place of cotton. Preparations using Sphagnum such as Sphagnol soap have been used for various skin conditions including acne , ringworm , and eczema . The soap was used by the British Red Cross during both World Wars to treat facial wounds and trench sores. Since it

1740-553: A table in the chancel. By using the "empty" cross, or cross of the Westminster/Celtic cross, Presbyterians emphasize the resurrection and that Christ is not continually dying, but died once and is alive for all eternity. Quite a few Presbyterian church buildings are decorated with a cross, that has a circle around the center, or Celtic cross. This not only emphasizes the resurrection, but also acknowledges historical aspects of Presbyterianism. A baptismal font will be located either at

1856-577: A willow marsh, a sphagnum bog, and a glacial kettle lake, with a full research facility and a bird observatory, located in Vestaburg , about 15 miles (24 km) west of Alma. Generally, more than half (52.4%) of Alma's students participate in sports. In December 2021, the college announced the addition of women's wrestling bringing the total number of sports offered up to 12 men's NCAA and 12 women's NCAA, plus co-ed esports and women's bowling, competitive cheer, dance, and STUNT. The mascot of Alma College

1972-690: A women's music fraternity, and Alpha Phi Omega , a co-ed National Service Fraternity, in addition to numerous honorary and professional fraternities. Alma College is home to one of the most successful Model United Nations (MUN) programs in the United States. Since the mid-1990s, Alma has received 58 “outstanding delegation” awards at the MUN Midwest Regional Competition and 52 at the National MUN Conference in New York City —

2088-582: Is Scotty. He wears a traditional highland Kilt , sporran , and sash woven in the Alma College tartan pattern. Prior to 1934, the Alma mascot was the Fighting Presbyterians. This became the subject of debate in 1931 due to a series of stories by The Almanian, a student-run newspaper, expressing discontent over the limitation on cheers to "Go Presbyterians" or "Go Campbellites," the latter in support of

2204-414: Is absorptive and extremely acidic, it inhibits growth of bacteria and fungi, so it is used for shipping seeds and live plants. Peat moss is used to dispose of the clarified liquid output (effluent) from septic tanks in areas that lack the proper conditions for ordinary disposal means. It is also used as an environmentally friendly alternative to chlorine in swimming pool sanitation . The moss inhibits

2320-498: Is also a mushroom , Sphagnurus paluster , produces conspicuous dead patches. When this fungus and other agarics attack the protonema , Sphagnum is induced to produce nonphotosynthetic gemmae that can survive the fungal attack and months later germinate to produce new protonema and leafy gametophytes. As with many other mosses , Sphagnum species disperse spores through the wind. The tops of spore capsules are only about 1 cm ( 1 ⁄ 2 ") above ground, and where wind

2436-676: Is also a congregation in the heart of London's financial district called London City Presbyterian Church that is affiliated with the Free Church of Scotland. The Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland also have a congregation in London, as do the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster - along with five others in England. In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church in England and Wales to form

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2552-484: Is also sometimes used for peat ). Accumulations of Sphagnum can store water, since both living and dead plants can hold large quantities of water inside their cells; plants may hold 16 to 26 times as much water as their dry weight, depending on the species. The empty cells help retain water in drier conditions. As Sphagnum moss grows, it can slowly spread into drier conditions, forming larger mires , both raised bogs and blanket bogs . Thus, Sphagnum can influence

2668-634: Is an Italian Protestant denomination. The church was founded in the 12th century, and centuries later, after the Protestant Reformation, it adhered to Calvinist theology and became the Italian branch of the Presbyterian churches. As such, the church is a member of the World Communion of Reformed Churches. Even before Presbyterianism spread with immigrants abroad from Scotland, there were divisions in

2784-463: Is based on a more subtle point: In confessional churches, theology is not solely an individual matter. While individuals are encouraged to understand Scripture, and may challenge the current institutional understanding, theology is carried out by the community as a whole. It is this community understanding of theology that is expressed in confessions. However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to confessionalism . The manner of subscription , or

2900-429: Is dominant and persistent. Unlike other mosses, the long-lived gametophytes do not rely upon rhizoids to assist in water uptake. Sphagnum species can be unisexual (male or female, dioecious) or bisexual (male and female gametes produced from the same plant; monoecious ); In North America, 80% of Sphagnum species are unisexual. Gametophytes have substantial asexual reproduction by fragmentation , producing much of

3016-486: Is done, the light intensity, and the water table. This "farming" is based on a sustainable management program approved by New Zealand's Department of Conservation ; it ensures the regeneration of the moss, while protecting the wildlife and the environment. Most harvesting in New Zealand swamps is done only using pitchforks without the use of heavy machinery. During transportation, helicopters are commonly employed to transfer

3132-574: Is forbidden in Chile since April 2024. Harvesting aside, bogs where Sphagnum grows have also come under threat by the development of wind farms in cool humid areas such as the Cordillera del Piuchén where the San Pedro Wind Farm was constructed in the 2010s. The construction of each wind turbine usually implies the removal of vegetation and the alteration of the soil, changing by the way also of

3248-600: Is more of a faint image, with a more modern design. John Knox (1505–1572), a Scot who had spent time studying under Calvin in Geneva, returned to Scotland and urged his countrymen to reform the Church in line with Calvinist doctrines. After a period of religious convulsion and political conflict culminating in a victory for the Protestant party at the Siege of Leith the authority of

3364-573: Is not one fixed "Presbyterian" worship style. Although there are set services for the Lord's Day in keeping with first-day Sabbatarianism , one can find a service to be evangelical and even revivalist in tone (especially in some conservative denominations), or strongly liturgical, approximating the practices of Lutheranism or more of Anglicanism , or semi-formal, allowing for a balance of hymns, preaching, and congregational participation (favored by many American Presbyterians). Most Presbyterian churches follow

3480-684: Is sometimes made between sphagnum moss, the live moss growing on top of a peat bog, and 'sphagnum peat moss' (North American usage) or 'sphagnum peat' (British usage), the latter being the slowly decaying matter underneath. Dried sphagnum moss is used in northern Arctic regions as an insulating material. Anaerobic acidic sphagnum bogs have low rates of decay, and hence preserve plant fragments and pollen to allow reconstruction of past environments. They even preserve human bodies for millennia; examples of these preserved specimens are Tollund Man , Haraldskær Woman , Clonycavan Man and Lindow Man . Such bogs can also preserve human hair and clothing, one of

3596-405: Is weak. As the spherical spore capsule dries, the operculum is forced off, followed by a cloud of spores. The exact mechanism has traditionally attributed to a "pop gun" method using air compressed in the capsule, reaching a maximum velocity of 3.6 meters (12 feet) per second, but alternative mechanisms have been recently proposed. High-speed photography has shown vortex rings are created during

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3712-695: The Apostles' Creed ), 16th-century Reformed confessions (the Scots Confession , the Heidelberg Catechism , the Second Helvetic Confession ), and 20th century documents ( The Theological Declaration of Barmen , Confession of 1967 and A Brief Statement of Faith ). The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed the confessional document Living Faith (1984) and retains it as a subordinate standard of

3828-684: The Archbishop of Canterbury , attempted to force the Church of Scotland to use the Book of Common Prayer . What resulted was an armed insurrection, with many Scots signing the Solemn League and Covenant . The Covenanters would serve as the government of Scotland for nearly a decade, and would also send military support to the Parliamentarians during the English Civil War . Following the restoration of

3944-663: The Arminianism of the Wesleyan Methodists. They broke off from the Church of England in 1811, ordaining their own ministers. They were originally known as the Calvinist Methodist connexion and in the 1920s it became alternatively known as the Presbyterian Church of Wales. Presbyterianism ( Irish : Preispitéireachas , Ulster Scots : Prisbytairinism ) is the largest Protestant denomination in Northern Ireland and

4060-543: The Catholic Church was abolished in favour of Reformation by the legislation of the Scottish Reformation Parliament in 1560. The Church was eventually organised by Andrew Melville along Presbyterian lines to become the national Church of Scotland . King James VI and I moved the Church of Scotland towards an episcopal form of government, and in 1637, James' successor, Charles I and William Laud ,

4176-663: The Culdees practiced Christian monasticism , a key feature of Celtic Christianity in the region, with a presbyter exercising "authority within the institution, while the different monastic institutions were independent of one another." The Church in Scotland kept the Christian feast of Easter at a date different from the See of Rome and its monks used a unique style of tonsure . The Synod of Whitby in 664, however, ended these distinctions as it ruled "that Easter would be celebrated according to

4292-602: The Faroe Islands , the Galápagos or the Azores have recorded a significant increase in their Sphagnum populations after human settlement. Peat moss can be distinguished from other moss species by its unique branch clusters. The plant and stem color, the shape of the branch and stem leaves, and the shape of the green cells are all characteristics used to identify peat moss to species. Sphagnum taxonomy has been very contentious since

4408-631: The Kingdom of Great Britain . In fact, most Presbyterians in England have a Scottish connection. The Presbyterian denomination was also taken to North America , mostly by Scots and Scots-Irish immigrants. Scotland's Presbyterian denominations hold to the Reformed theology of John Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism. Local congregations of churches that use Presbyterian polity are governed by sessions made up of representatives of

4524-574: The L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s - now with fifteen English-speaking congregations in England, and 6 Korean-speaking congregations. There is also the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales founded in the North of England in the late 1980s. In Wales , Presbyterianism is represented by the Presbyterian Church of Wales , which was originally composed largely of Calvinistic Methodists who accepted Calvinist theology rather than

4640-720: The Larger and Shorter catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction. Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the Westminster Standards as their standard of doctrine which is subordinate to the Bible. These documents are Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation. The Presbyterian Church in Canada retains the Westminster Confession of Faith in its original form, while admitting

4756-596: The Northern Hemisphere in peat bogs, conifer forests, and moist tundra areas. Their northernmost populations lie in the archipelago of Svalbard , Arctic Norway , at 81° N. In the Southern Hemisphere , the largest peat areas are in southern Chile and Argentina , part of the vast Magellanic moorland ( circa 44,000 square km; 17,000 sq. mi.). Peat areas are also found in New Zealand and Tasmania . In

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4872-781: The Orthodox Presbyterian Church (OPC), the Bible Presbyterian Church (BPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church (CPC), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America , the Evangelical Presbyterian Church (EPC), and the Evangelical Covenant Order of Presbyterians (ECO). Sphagnum List of Sphagnum species Sphagnum is a genus of approximately 380 accepted species of mosses , commonly known as sphagnum moss , also bog moss and quacker moss (although that term

4988-620: The Parliament of Scotland adopted the Scots Confession as the creed of the Scottish Kingdom. In December 1560, the First Book of Discipline was published, outlining important doctrinal issues but also establishing regulations for church government, including the creation of ten ecclesiastical districts with appointed superintendents which later became known as presbyteries . In time,

5104-555: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church . There is a Church of Scotland (Presbyterian) in central Paris: The Scots Kirk , which is English-speaking, and is attended by many nationalities. It maintains close links with the Church of Scotland in Scotland itself, as well as with the Reformed Church of France . The Waldensian Evangelical Church (Chiesa Evangelica Valdese, CEV)

5220-473: The Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland , the ' Didasko Presbytery' , the International Presbyterian Church and two congregations of the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster . Combined, they have over 1500 congregations in Scotland. Within Scotland the term ' kirk ' is usually used to refer to a local Presbyterian church. Informally, the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of Scotland. Some of

5336-543: The Reformed Presbyterians , would practice a cappella exclusive psalmody , as well as eschew the celebration of holy days. Among the paleo-orthodox and emerging church movements in Protestant and evangelical churches, in which some Presbyterians are involved, clergy are moving away from the traditional black Geneva gown to such vestments as the alb and chasuble , but also cassock and surplice (typically

5452-521: The Sphagnales reflecting an ancestral relationship with the Tasmanian endemic Ambuchanania and long phylogenetic distance to the rest of Sphagnum . Within main clade of Sphagnum , phylogenetic distance is relatively short, and molecular dating methods suggest nearly all current Sphagnum species are descended from a radiation that occurred just 14 million years ago. Sphagnum mosses occur mainly in

5568-549: The United Reformed Church (URC). Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were Tunley (Lancashire), Aston Tirrold (Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian Church, Stepney, London (now part of Stepney Meeting House URC) – these are among the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century. The URC also has a presence in Scotland, mostly of former Congregationalist Churches. Two former Presbyterian congregations, St Columba's, Cambridge (founded in 1879), and St Columba's, Oxford (founded as

5684-424: The episcopal hierarchy of the Elizabethan Church led to his deprivation of his post by Archbishop John Whitgift and his emigration abroad. Between 1645 and 1648, a series of ordinances of the Long Parliament established Presbyterianism as the polity of the Church of England . Presbyterian government was established in London and Lancashire and in a few other places in England, although Presbyterian hostility to

5800-421: The execution of Charles I and the establishment of the republican Commonwealth of England meant that Parliament never enforced the Presbyterian system in England. The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 brought the return of Episcopal church government in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in Non-Conformity, outside of the established church. In 1719

5916-404: The history of Christianity , but the beginning of Presbyterianism as a distinct movement occurred during the 16th century Protestant Reformation . As the Catholic Church resisted the Reformers, several different theological movements splintered from the Church and bore different denominations. Presbyterianism was especially influenced by the French theologian John Calvin , who is credited with

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6032-415: The 1960s than residences in North Campus) as well as the new environmentally friendly apartment-style Wright Hall, inaugurated in 2005 and the second residence of its name, the former being demolished in 1976. South Campus is also home to "Fraternity Row" (Center Street) and "Sorority Row" (Superior Street) as well as several other themed houses. More than half of the buildings on Alma's campus were built under

6148-498: The 19th century and later. Following the 'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined what became the Presbyterian Church of England in 1876. Some, such as Crown Court (Covent Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney, London) and Swallow Street (London), did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Church of Scotland congregations in England such as those at Crown Court , and St Columba's , Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London. There

6264-459: The 2010s, Sphagnum peat in Chile has begun to be harvested at a large scale for export to countries like Japan, South Korea, Taiwan and the United States. Sphagnum ’s ability to absorb excess water and release it during dry months means that overexploitation may threaten the water supply in the fjords and channels of Chile . Extraction of Sphagnum in Chile is regulated by law since 2 August 2018. Between 2018 and 2024, Chilean law allowed for

6380-414: The 20th century saw a greater embrace of modern architectural styles, particularly the modernist movement characterized by clean lines, geometric shapes, and open floor plans. Prominent examples include Coral Ridge Presbyterian Church in Fort Lauderdale, Florida, with expansive, light-filled sanctuary and angular design elements. Similarly, the National Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C., features

6496-496: The 20th century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the ecumenical movement , including the World Council of Churches . Many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Communion of Reformed Churches . Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists , Lutherans , Anglicans , and Methodists . Presbyterians in

6612-686: The Alma College Pipe Band, Kiltie Dancers, and its tartan. While still maintaining a close relationship with the Presbyterian Church , Alma College accepts and welcomes students of all religious backgrounds. Alma College offers more than 45 undergraduate academic programs, and four graduate programs, leading to Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Fine Arts, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Science in nursing, Bachelor of Music, Master of Fine Arts in Creative Writing, Master of Science in Communication Information Technology, Master of Arts in Special Education with Learning Disabilities Endorsement and Master of Arts in Clinical Mental Health Counseling degrees. In addition to

6728-484: The Bible, yet directing particularities in the standardisation and translation of the Bible – in Presbyterian churches. Presbyterians place great importance upon education and lifelong learning, tempered with the belief that no human action can affect salvation . Continuous study of the scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine are embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of

6844-435: The British Isles usually organise their church services inspired by the principles in the Directory of Public Worship , developed by the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s. This directory documented Reformed worship practices and theology adopted and developed over the preceding century by British Puritans , initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox. It was enacted as law by the Parliament of Scotland , and became one of

6960-523: The Church of Scotland's form of government. However, legislation by the United Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to splits in the Church. In 1733, a group of ministers seceded from the Church of Scotland to form the Associate Presbytery, another group seceded in 1761 to form the Relief Church and the Disruption of 1843 led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland . Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of

7076-449: The Presbyterian churches are in Calvinism . Many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy, while some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with the Westminster Confession of Faith , which historically serves as an important confessional document – second only to

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7192-400: The Roman date, not the Celtic date." Although Roman influence came to dominate the Church in Scotland, certain Celtic influences remained in the Scottish Church, such as "the singing of metrical psalms , many of them set to old Celtic Christianity Scottish traditional and folk tunes", which later became a "distinctive part of Scottish Presbyterian worship". Presbyterian history is part of

7308-425: The Scots Confession would be supplanted by the Westminster Confession of Faith , and the larger and shorter catechisms , which were formulated by the Westminster Assembly between 1643 and 1649. Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine , institutional organisation (or "church order") and worship , often using a "Book of Order" to regulate common practice and order. The origins of

7424-542: The Southern Hemisphere, however, peat landscapes may contain many moss species other than Sphagnum . Sphagnum species are also reported from "dripping rocks" in mountainous, subtropical Brazil . Several of the world's largest wetlands are sphagnum-dominated bogs , including the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowland and the Mackenzie River Valley. These areas provide habitat for common and rare species. They also store large amounts of carbon, which helps reduce global warming. According to an article written in 2013,

7540-420: The U.S. got up to 80% of sphagnum peat moss it uses from Canada. At that time, in Canada, the peat bog mass harvested each year was roughly 1/60th of the peat mass that annually accumulated. About 0.02% of the 1.1 million km (420,000 sq mi) of Canadian peat bog are used for peat moss mining. Some efforts are being made to restore peat bogs after peat mining, and some debate exists as to whether

7656-485: The United States came largely from Scottish , Scots-Irish immigrants , and also from New England communities that were originally Congregational but changed because of an agreed-upon Plan of Union of 1801 for frontier areas. Presbyterian tradition, particularly that of the Church of Scotland , traces its early roots to the Christian Church founded by Saint Columba , through the 6th century Hiberno-Scottish mission . Tracing their apostolic origin to Saint John ,

7772-681: The academic majors, numerous concentrations, academic institutes, and special programs are offered, including the Presidential Honors Program and the Center for College and Community Engagement. Its most popular majors, in terms of 2023 graduates, were: Along with its on-campus options, Alma College offers a number of domestic off-campus and internship programs, in cities including Chicago , New York City , Philadelphia and Washington DC . Alma offers international study programs in countries including Argentina , Australia , Ecuador , England , France , Germany , Ghana , Greece , Ireland , Italy , New Zealand , Peru , Scotland and Spain . Alma has

7888-554: The biodiversity of an unharvested bog." PittMoss, a peat moss alternative made from recycled newspaper, has emerged as a sustainable substitute in growing media. Coir has also been touted as a sustainable alternative to peat moss in growing media. Another peat moss alternative is manufactured in California from sustainably harvested redwood fiber. Semi-open cell polyurethane materials available in flaked and sheet stock are also finding application as sphagnum replacements with typical usage in green wall and roof garden substrates. In

8004-403: The chancel. There may be a rail between the communion table and the chancel behind it, which may contain a more decorative altar-type table, choir loft, or choir stalls, lectern and clergy area. The altar is called the communion table, and the altar area is called the chancel by Presbyterians. In Presbyterian, and in Reformed churches, there may be an altar cross, either on the communion table or on

8120-567: The church, often referred to as " subordinate standards ". Presbyterian government is by councils (still known as courts in some countries, as boards in others) of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local congregation . Teaching elders (pastors or ministers) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors or ministers are called by individual congregations. A congregation issues

8236-456: The college launched a Master of Science in Communication and Information Technology degree. In 2023, the college launched a Master of Arts in Special Education with Learning Disabilities Endorsement program. In 2024, the college launched a Master of Arts in Clinical Mental Health Counseling degree. Alma College is located in a small-town setting, the city of Alma having slightly fewer than 10,000 residents. Its primary academic buildings, built with

8352-549: The college's eight music ensembles. It features a 500-seat concert hall for large performances, an intimate 190-seat theatre, and a dance studio. Several social Greek letter organizations are active on the Alma College campus. There are five social fraternities: Zeta Sigma, Delta Gamma Tau, Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia , Sigma Chi , and Tau Kappa Epsilon . There are five social sororities: Kappa Iota, Alpha Gamma Delta , Alpha Xi Delta , Gamma Phi Beta , and Phi Sigma Sigma . Other Greek organizations on campus include Sigma Alpha Iota ,

8468-410: The composition of such habitats, with some describing Sphagnum as 'habitat manipulators' or 'autogenic ecosystem engineers'. These peat accumulations then provide habitat for a wide array of peatland plants, including sedges and ericaceous shrubs, as well as orchids and carnivorous plants. Sphagnum and the peat formed from it do not decay readily because of the phenolic compounds embedded in

8584-518: The congregation ( elders ), a conciliar approach as with other levels of decision-making ( presbytery , synod , and general assembly ). There are roughly 75 million Presbyterians in the world. Presbyterianism's roots lie in the Reformation of the 16th century. John Calvin's Republic of Geneva was particularly influential. Most Reformed churches that trace their history to Scotland are either presbyterian or congregationalist in government. In

8700-534: The degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, is a practical matter. That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard. Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the Westminster Confession of Faith as the doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are required to subscribe, in contrast to

8816-560: The denomination. It is confessional in format, yet like the Westminster Confession, draws attention back to original Bible text. Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland . John Gresham Machen, the prominent Presbyterian theologian and Professor of New Testament at Princeton Seminary between 1906 and 1929, led

8932-515: The development of Reformed theology , and the work of John Knox , a Scottish Catholic Priest who studied with Calvin in Geneva and brought back Reformed teachings to Scotland. An important influence on the formation of presbyterianism in Britain also came from John a Lasco , a Polish reformer, the founder of a Stranger's Church in London, based on the Geneva models. The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland. In August 1560,

9048-456: The discharge, which enable the spores to reach a height of 10 to 20 cm (4 to 8 in), further than would be expected by ballistics alone. The acceleration of the spores is about 36,000 g . Spores are extremely important in establishment of new populations in disturbed habitats and on islands. Human activities like slash-and-burn and cattle grazing are believed to promote the growth and expansion of Sphagnum moss. Oceanic islands such as

9164-551: The early 1900s; most species require microscopic dissection to be identified. In the field, most Sphagnum species can be identified to one of four major sections of the genus—classification and descriptions follow Andrus 2007 (Flora North America): The reciprocal monophyly of these sections and two other minor ones ( Rigida and Squarrosa ) has been clarified using molecular phylogenetics . All but two species normally identified as Sphagnum reside in one clade; two other species have recently been separated into new families within

9280-527: The entrance or near the chancel area. Presbyterian architecture generally makes significant use of symbolism. One may also find decorative and ornate stained glass windows depicting scenes from the Bible. Some Presbyterian churches will also have ornate statues of Christ or graven scenes from the Last Supper located behind the chancel. St. Giles' Cathedral in Scotland has a crucifix next to an ornate elevated communion table that hangs alongside. The image of Christ

9396-661: The established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland . There are now ten Presbyterian denominations in Scotland today. These are, listed by number of congregations within Scotland: the Church of Scotland , the Free Church of Scotland , the United Free Church of Scotland , the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland , the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) , the Associated Presbyterian Church ,

9512-470: The first Presbytery in Philadelphia was established. In time, the presbytery would be joined by two more to form a synod (1717) and would evolve into the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America in 1789. The nation's largest Presbyterian denomination, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) – PC (USA) – can trace its heritage back to the original PCUSA, as can the Presbyterian Church in America (PCA),

9628-519: The football coach, Royal Campbell. More than a third of all Alma students take part in at least one performance each year. The college offers majors in theatre, dance and music, but students of all majors may join in productions. The Heritage Center for the Performing Arts is the region's premiere performing arts facility. It houses the Theatre and Dance Department, and serves as the performance venue for

9744-529: The foundational documents of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere. Historically, the driving principle in the development of the standards of Presbyterian worship is the Regulative principle of worship , which specifies that (in worship), what is not commanded is forbidden. Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian churches modified these prescriptions by introducing hymnody, instrumental accompaniment, and ceremonial vestments into worship. However, there

9860-501: The full congregation. Since the 20th century, most denominations allow women to be teaching or ruling elders. Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations. The presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly , although an intermediate level of

9976-507: The historical period in which it was written should be understood when it is read. The Westminster Confession is "The principal subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland " but "with due regard to liberty of opinion in points which do not enter into the substance of the Faith" (V). This formulation represents many years of struggle over the extent to which the confession reflects the Word of God and

10092-580: The larger Presbyterian family. Some later rejoined only to separate again. In what some interpret as rueful self-reproach, some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split Ps". Presbyterianism first officially arrived in Colonial America in 1644 with the establishment of Christ's First Presbyterian Church in Hempstead, New York. The Church was organized by the Rev. Richard Denton. In 1703

10208-423: The living material in sphagnum peatlands. Swimming sperm fertilize eggs contained in archegonia that remain attached to the female gametophyte . The sporophyte is relatively short-lived, and consists almost entirely of a shiny green, spherical spore capsule that becomes black with spores. Sporophytes are raised on stalks to facilitate spore dispersal, but unlike other mosses, Sphagnum stalks are produced by

10324-743: The local hydrology . Europe has a long history of the exploitation of peatlands. The Netherlands , for example, once had large areas of peatland, both fen and bog. Between 100 AD and the present, they were drained and converted to agricultural land. The English broadlands have small lakes that originated as peat mines. More than 90% of the bogs in England have been damaged or destroyed. A handful of bogs has been preserved through government buyouts of peat-mining interests. Over longer time scales, however, some parts of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales have seen expansion of bogs, particularly blanket bogs, in response to deforestation and abandonment of agricultural land. New Zealand has, like other parts of

10440-523: The long tenure (1956–1980) of Robert D. Swanson , after whom the main academic building is named. The Dow Science Center, renovated in 2018, features the Rollin M. Gerstacker Science and Technology Suite, as well as the Dow Digital Science Center (DDSC). These spaces offer academic student study space, large screen monitors for showing remote projects in real time, dedicated computer work stations,

10556-535: The main local venue for numerous theatrical productions, concerts and public lectures. Today, it is used for student housing and special events. The college in 2023 opened the Greg Hatcher Learning Commons, a $ 14-million renovation of its preexisting library into a new facility, which serves as both a library and a student union. In addition to the main campus, the college also owns a 180-acre (0.73 km) ecological research area containing woodlands,

10672-727: The mainline Presbyterians. These were more of the wave of Presbyterians that were influenced by the Puritans. In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to occur. Prosperous congregations built imposing churches, such as Fourth Presbyterian Church of Chicago , Brick Presbyterian Church in New York City, Shadyside Presbyterian Church in Pennsylvania, St Stephen Presbyterian in Fort Worth, Texas, and many others. While Presbyterian churches historically reflected prevailing architectural trends,

10788-405: The manual extraction of Sphagnum using only pitchforks or similar tools as an aid. In a given designated harvesting area (polygon) at least 30% of Sphagnum coverage had to be left unharvested. Harvested Sphagnum fibers we not allowed to exceed 15 cm (5.9 in) in length and the remaining Sphagnum after harvest was not to be left with a length of less than 5 cm (2.0 in) over

10904-624: The maternal gametophyte. Tetrahedral haploid spores are produced in the sporophyte by meiosis, which are then dispersed when the capsule explosively discharges its cap, called an operculum , and shoots the spores some distance. The spores germinate to produce minute protonemae , which start as filaments, can become thalloid, and can produce a few rhizoids. Soon afterwards, the protonema develops buds and these differentiate into its characteristic, erect, leafy, branched gametophyte with chlorophyllose cells and hyaline cells. Carpets of living Sphagnum may be attacked by various fungi , and one fungus that

11020-608: The monarchy in 1660, Charles II , despite the initial support that he received from the Covenanters, reinstated an episcopal form of government on the church. However, with the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Church of Scotland was unequivocally recognised as a Presbyterian institution by the monarch due to Scottish Presbyterian support for the aforementioned revolution and the Acts of Union 1707 between Scotland and England guaranteed

11136-501: The moss's cell walls . In addition, bogs, like all wetlands, develop anaerobic soil conditions, which produces slower anaerobic decay rather than aerobic microbial action. Peat moss can also acidify its surroundings by taking up cations , such as calcium and magnesium , and releasing hydrogen ions. Under the right conditions, peat can accumulate to a depth of many meters. Different species of Sphagnum have different tolerance limits for flooding and pH, and any one peatland may have

11252-425: The most noteworthy examples being Egtved Girl , Denmark . Because of the acidity of peat, however, bones are dissolved rather than preserved. These bogs have also been used to preserve food. Up to 2000-year-old containers of butter or lard have been found. Sphagnum moss has been used for centuries as a dressing for wounds, including through World War I . Botanist John William Hotson 's paper, Sphagnum as

11368-610: The most of any college or university in the 95-year history of the conference. The Alma College MUN program was used as a clue on a 2017 episode of Jeopardy! In a 2012 article, The Huffington Post referred to the Alma College MUN program as "an unlikely superpower." Presbyterians Christianity • Protestantism Presbyterianism is a Reformed (Calvinist) Protestant tradition named for its form of church government by representative assemblies of elders . Though other Reformed churches are structurally similar,

11484-485: The newly harvested moss from the swamp to the nearest road. Decayed, dried sphagnum moss has the name of peat or peat moss. This is used as a soil conditioner which increases the soil's capacity to hold water and nutrients by increasing capillary forces and cation exchange capacity – uses that are particularly useful in gardening. This is often desired when dealing with very sandy soil, or plants that need increased or steady moisture content to flourish. A distinction

11600-462: The nurture and leadership of the congregation. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations). This group may variously be known as a "Deacon Board", "Board of Deacons" "Diaconate", or "Deacons' Court". These are sometimes known as "presbyters" to

11716-616: The original law project presented in 2018 sought the extablish a definitive ban on the harvest. Along Rubens River in Magallanes Region there are some historically important harvesting fields of peat in Sphagnum peatlands. Sphagnum peatlands in Chile disturbed by peat extraction have been found to host various invasive plant species including Rumex acetosella , Carex canescens , Holcus lanatus and Hieracium pilosella . Harvesting of peat in Sphagnum mosses or any where else

11832-435: The peat bogs can be restored to their premining condition and how long the process takes. "The North American Wetlands Conservation Council estimates that harvested peatlands can be restored to 'ecologically balanced systems' within five to 20 years after peat harvesting." Some wetlands scientists assert that "a managed bog bears little resemblance to a natural one. Like tree farms, these peatlands tend toward monoculture, lacking

11948-404: The plant. Additionally there are larger hyaline or retort cells that are barrel shaped and have a pore at one end to allow for water absorption and improved water-holding capacity. These unique cells help Sphagnum to retain water during prolonged UV exposure. Sphagnum , like all other land plants, has an alternation of generations ; like other bryophytes , the haploid gametophyte generation

12064-413: The puritan movement, were careful to distinguish between the "church", which referred to the members , and the "meeting house", which was the building in which the church met. (Quakers still insist upon this distinction.) Until the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians ever referred to their buildings as "churches". Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses (now called churches) are buildings to support

12180-584: The pursuit of learning to the glory of God and to the dignity of men. The college's 13th president, Dr. Jeff Abernathy, assumed leadership in June 2010. In 1931, a contest was held to come up with a new nickname, and "the Scots"—a nod to the Presbyterian Church's roots in Scotland—was chosen. Since that time, Alma College has embraced its Scottish traditions. Today, this is evident through many programs and symbols, including

12296-576: The second largest on the island of Ireland (after the Anglican Church of Ireland ), and was brought by Scottish plantation settlers to Ulster who had been strongly encouraged to emigrate by James VI of Scotland, also James I of Ireland and England . An estimated 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians moved to the northern counties of Ireland between 1607 and the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. The Presbytery of Ulster

12412-590: The shape varies according to species. Sphagnum has a distinctive cellular structure. The stem portion consists of two important sections. The pith which is the site of food production and storage, and the cortical layer which serves to absorb water and protect the pith. Mosses have no vascular system to move water and nutrients around the plant. Thus tissues are thin and usually one cell thick to allow them to diffuse easily. Sphagnum mosses have two distinct cell types. There are small, green, living cells with chlorophyll ( chlorophyllose cells) that produce food for

12528-499: The step skipped is the Synod. The Church of Scotland abolished the Synod in 1993. Presbyterian governance is practiced by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches . Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition. This has two implications. The obvious one is that confessional churches express their faith in the form of "confessions of faith", which have some level of authoritative status. However this

12644-637: The struggle of conscience of those who came to believe it did not fully do so (e.g. William Robertson Smith ). Some Presbyterian churches, such as the Free Church of Scotland , have no such " conscience clause". The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) has adopted the Book of Confessions , which reflects the inclusion of other Reformed confessions in addition to the Westminster Standards. These other documents include ancient creedal statements (the Nicene Creed ,

12760-420: The traditional liturgical year and observe the traditional holidays, holy seasons, such as Advent , Christmas, Ash Wednesday , Holy Week , Easter, Pentecost , etc. They also make use of the appropriate seasonal liturgical colors , etc. Many incorporate ancient liturgical prayers and responses into the communion services and follow a daily, seasonal, and festival lectionary. Other Presbyterians, however, such as

12876-564: The values and ideals espoused in Scottish Presbyterian denominations can be reflected in this reference in a book from Norman Drummond, chaplain to the Queen in Scotland. Chart of splits and mergers of the Scottish Presbyterian churches In England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in 1592. Thomas Cartwright is thought to be the first Presbyterian in England. Cartwright's controversial lectures at Cambridge University condemning

12992-503: The water table. In the regions of Los Ríos (40°S) and Los Lagos (41–43°S) the same plots could be harvested after 12 years, while further south in Aysén (44–48°S) and Magallanes (49–56°S) 85 years had to pass before the same area can be harvested again. According to a 2024 law harvesting of Sphagnum can only be done with land-management plans approved by Servicio Agrícola y Ganadero . Some environmental organisations expressed regret as

13108-531: The word Presbyterian is applied to churches that trace their roots to the Church of Scotland or to English Dissenter groups that formed during the English Civil War . Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God , the authority of the Scriptures , and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ. Scotland ensured Presbyterian church government in the 1707 Acts of Union , which created

13224-411: The world, lost large areas of peatland . The latest estimates for wetland loss in New Zealand are 90% over 150 years. In some cases, better care is taken during the harvesting of Sphagnum to ensure enough moss is remaining to allow regrowth. An 8-year cycle is suggested, but some sites require a longer cycle of 11 to 32 years for full recovery of biomass, depending on factors including whether reseeding

13340-406: The worship of God. The decor in some instances was austere so as not to detract from worship. Early Presbyterian meeting-houses were extremely plain. No stained glass, no elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be found in the meeting-house. The pulpit, often raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase, was the centerpiece of the building. But these were not the standard characteristics of

13456-466: Was formed in 1642 separately from the established Anglican Church. Presbyterians, along with Catholics in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory Penal Laws until they were revoked in the early 19th century. Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the Presbyterian Church in Ireland , the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland , the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster ,

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