The Kootenays or Kootenay ( / ˈ k uː t n i / KOOT -nee ) is a region of southeastern British Columbia . It takes its name from the Kootenay River , which in turn was named for the Kutenai First Nations people.
107-654: Albert Canyon is a railway point in the West Kootenay region of southeastern British Columbia . The community was immediately east of the mouth of Albert Creek on the south shore of the Illecillewaet River . That settlement no longer exists, but the Canyon Hot Springs Resort borders to its north. On BC Highway 1 , the locality is by road about 33 kilometres (21 mi) northeast of Revelstoke and 30 kilometres (19 mi) southwest of Glacier . In 1865,
214-497: A 280-metre (930 ft) test section of PaCT track at Albert Canyon to determine its suitability for laying in the Mount Macdonald Tunnel . A hot box detector operates 1.3 kilometres (0.8 mi) to the east. Prior to double tracking , a siding existed, which measured 73 cars long west and 77 east in the late 1890s, and 97 cars long in 1935. Built in 1887, the standard-design (Bohi's Type 3) two-storey station building
321-424: A critical temperature gradient. Large, angular snow crystals are indicators of weak snow, because such crystals have fewer bonds per unit volume than small, rounded crystals that pack tightly together. Consolidated snow is less likely to slough than loose powdery layers or wet isothermal snow; however, consolidated snow is a necessary condition for the occurrence of slab avalanches , and persistent instabilities within
428-541: A drag force that was proportional to the square of the speed of its flow: He and others subsequently derived other formulae that take other factors into account, with the Voellmy-Salm-Gubler and the Perla-Cheng-McClung models becoming most widely used as simple tools to model flowing (as opposed to powder snow) avalanches. Since the 1990s many more sophisticated models have been developed. In Europe much of
535-581: A falling tree demolished the hot pool enclosure, but not the pool. Carlson re-established a general store. Entrepreneur, Curtis D. Morris of Rogers Pass opened Canyon House, a boarding house, transferring his liquor licence from the Windsor Hotel at Illecillewaet. A year later, his brother Bernard ran the Springs Hotel. Frank Holder, the CP agent, was postmaster 1909–1927. By 1910, Bernard Morris managed Canyon House,
642-529: A five-stall engine house that replaced an earlier building. CP erected a 91,000-litre; 24,000-US-gallon (20,000 imp gal) oil fuelling tank in 1917, for oil-fired locomotives, and a mechanical coaling plant in 1921, for coal-fired locomotives. The engine house closed in 1940 when the pusher fleet relocated to Revelstoke. Still operational in 1948, it is unclear when the telegraph office closed. Passenger service ended in early 1965. The section crew probably relocated about this time. In 1984, CP constructed
749-463: A fracture at the bottom called the stauchwall. The crown and flank fractures are vertical walls in the snow delineating the snow that was entrained in the avalanche from the snow that remained on the slope. Slabs can vary in thickness from a few centimetres to three metres. Slab avalanches account for around 90% of avalanche-related fatalities. The largest avalanches form turbulent suspension currents known as powder snow avalanches or mixed avalanches,
856-726: A geographical region and the other a legal boundary, the Kootenay Land District , which was identical with the original federal and provincial Kootenay ridings . Once settled by miners, loggers, and rail workers, the area experienced a silver rush in the 1890s. The district now contains important tourism, outdoor activity and fruit-growing regions ( Creston Valley ) and numerous commercial centres, including Grand Forks , Kaslo , Robson , Ymir , Warfield , Montrose , Fruitvale , Salmo , Trail , Nelson , Slocan , Playmor , Winlaw , Cranbrook , Kimberley , Fernie , Castlegar , Rossland , Erickson , and Creston . The region has
963-502: A head-on collision. 1955: An 80-year-old man did not survive on being struck by a snowplow . 1956: Thirteen freight cars derailed between Albert Canyon and Lauretta. 1963: A boulder on the tracks derailed three diesel engines and a baggage car on a passenger train. 1970: Eighteen cars of a 104-car westbound coal train derailed. 1975: Seven cars of a westbound coal train derailed. The following week, 21 cars of an empty 78-car coal train derailed. 1981: A passing train fatally injured
1070-450: A kind of gravity current . These consist of a powder cloud, which overlies a dense avalanche. They can form from any type of snow or initiation mechanism, but usually occur with fresh dry powder. They can exceed speeds of 300 km/h (190 mph), and masses of 1,000,000 tons; their flows can travel long distances along flat valley bottoms and even uphill for short distances. In contrast to powder snow avalanches, wet snow avalanches are
1177-463: A large network of outdoor activity operators, with the biggest facilities including lift, cat and heli-skiing. This includes some of the oldest resorts in North America such as Red Mountain , and largest Revelstoke Mountain . The highway that connects them all has been named the powder highway . With the emergence of fibre internet, digital nomads and technology developers are now a growing part of
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#17330848811941284-596: A long term, lasting from days to years. Experts interpret the recorded data and are able to recognize upcoming ruptures in order to initiate appropriate measures. Such systems (e.g. the monitoring of the Weissmies glacier in Switzerland ) can recognize events several days in advance. Modern radar technology enables the monitoring of large areas and the localization of avalanches at any weather condition, by day and by night. Complex alarm systems are able to detect avalanches within
1391-411: A low velocity suspension of snow and water, with the flow confined to the track surface (McClung, 1999, p. 108). The low speed of travel is due to the friction between the sliding surface of the track and the water saturated flow. Despite the low speed of travel (≈10–40 km/h), wet snow avalanches are capable of generating powerful destructive forces, due to the large mass and density. The body of
1498-459: A man walking along the tracks. 2011: Seventeen cars of a westbound freight train derailed just west of Lauretta. West Kootenay The Kootenays are more or less defined by the Kootenay Land District , though some variation exists in terms of what areas are or are not a part. The strictest definition of the region is the drainage basin of the lower Kootenay River from its re-entry into Canada near Creston , through to its confluence with
1605-455: A mining entrepreneur, initiated a wagon road to the Waverley mine on Downie Creek . The approximate 40-kilometre (25 mi) length appears to include a rehabilitation of the original road. Barry & Ross, the road contractors, completed the project by that November. The Farm, a hotel, was established 24 kilometres (15 mi) north on the road. Patterson Bros, who were unsuccessful in leasing
1712-400: A number of methods including hand-tossed charges, helicopter-dropped bombs, Gazex concussion lines, and ballistic projectiles launched by air cannons and artillery. Passive preventive systems such as snow fences and light walls can be used to direct the placement of snow. Snow builds up around the fence, especially the side that faces the prevailing winds . Downwind of the fence, snow build-up
1819-406: A passenger slipped, falling beneath the wheels, where he suffered fatal injuries. 1901: About 10 kilometres (6 mi) west, a five-year-old boy fell from an eastbound passenger train, the wheels severing both his legs. Although found by a watchman, his absence was unnoticed until the train reached Albert Canyon. A relief train found and took the boy to Revelstoke hospital, where a double amputation
1926-413: A persistent weakness in the snowpack. When a slab lying on top of a persistent weakness is loaded by a force greater than the strength of the slab and persistent weak layer, the persistent weak layer can fail and generate an avalanche. Any wind stronger than a light breeze can contribute to a rapid accumulation of snow on sheltered slopes downwind. Wind slabs form quickly and, if present, weaker snow below
2033-400: A point significantly above the freezing point of water, may cause avalanche formation at any time of year. Persistent cold temperatures can either prevent new snow from stabilizing or destabilize the existing snowpack. Cold air temperatures on the snow surface produce a temperature gradient in the snow, because the ground temperature at the base of the snowpack is usually around 0 °C, and
2140-412: A point with only a small amount of snow moving initially; this is typical of wet snow avalanches or avalanches in dry unconsolidated snow. However, if the snow has sintered into a stiff slab overlying a weak layer, then fractures can propagate very rapidly, so that a large volume of snow, possibly thousands of cubic metres, can start moving almost simultaneously. A snowpack will fail when the load exceeds
2247-592: A short time in order to close (e.g. roads and rails) or evacuate (e.g. construction sites) endangered areas. An example of such a system is installed on the only access road of Zermatt in Switzerland. Two radars monitor the slope of a mountain above the road. The system automatically closes the road by activating several barriers and traffic lights within seconds such that no people are harmed. Avalanche accidents are broadly differentiated into 2 categories: accidents in recreational settings, and accidents in residential, industrial, and transportation settings. This distinction
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#17330848811942354-417: A start zone where the avalanche originates, a track along which the avalanche flows, and a runout zone where the avalanche comes to rest. The debris deposit is the accumulated mass of the avalanched snow once it has come to rest in the run-out zone. For the image at left, many small avalanches form in this avalanche path every year, but most of these avalanches do not run the full vertical or horizontal length of
2461-415: A storm. Daytime exposure to sunlight will rapidly destabilize the upper layers of the snowpack if the sunlight is strong enough to melt the snow, thereby reducing its hardness. During clear nights, the snowpack can re-freeze when ambient air temperatures fall below freezing, through the process of long-wave radiative cooling, or both. Radiative heat loss occurs when the night air is significantly cooler than
2568-412: A sufficient quantity of airborne snow, this portion of the avalanche can become separated from the bulk of the avalanche and travel a greater distance as a powder snow avalanche. Scientific studies using radar , following the 1999 Galtür avalanche disaster , confirmed the hypothesis that a saltation layer forms between the surface and the airborne components of an avalanche, which can also separate from
2675-626: A suspended sentence. The small Austrian village of Galtür was hit by the Galtür avalanche in 1999. The village was thought to be in a safe zone but the avalanche was exceptionally large and flowed into the village. Thirty-one people died. On 1 December 2000, the Glory Bowl Avalanche formed on Mt. Glory which is located within the Teton Mountain Range in Wyoming, United States. Joel Roof
2782-705: A three-month period throughout the Alps in Austria, France, Switzerland, Italy and Germany. This series of avalanches killed around 265 people and was termed the Winter of Terror . A mountain climbing camp on Lenin Peak, in what is now Kyrgyzstan, was wiped out in 1990 when an earthquake triggered a large avalanche that overran the camp. Forty-three climbers were killed. In 1993, the Bayburt Üzengili avalanche killed 60 individuals in Üzengili in
2889-413: A variety of factors such as the snow's shear strength (which is itself dependent upon crystal form) and the configuration of layers and inter-layer interfaces. The snowpack on slopes with sunny exposures is strongly influenced by sunshine . Diurnal cycles of thawing and refreezing can stabilize the snowpack by promoting settlement. Strong freeze-thaw cycles result in the formation of surface crusts during
2996-403: Is a rigid fence-like structure ( snow fence ) and may be constructed of steel , wood or pre-stressed concrete . They usually have gaps between the beams and are built perpendicular to the slope, with reinforcing beams on the downhill side. Rigid barriers are often considered unsightly, especially when many rows must be built. They are also expensive and vulnerable to damage from falling rocks in
3103-562: Is called the Starting Point and typically occurs on a 30–45 degree slope. The body of the pathway is called the Track of the avalanche and usually occurs on a 20–30 degree slope. When the avalanche loses its momentum and eventually stops it reaches the Runout Zone. This usually occurs when the slope has reached a steepness that is less than 20 degrees. These degrees are not consistently true due to
3210-424: Is critically sensitive to small variations within the narrow range of meteorological conditions that allow for the accumulation of snow into a snowpack. Among the critical factors controlling snowpack evolution are: heating by the sun, radiational cooling , vertical temperature gradients in standing snow, snowfall amounts, and snow types. Generally, mild winter weather will promote the settlement and stabilization of
3317-408: Is flat enough to hold snow but steep enough to ski has the potential to generate an avalanche, regardless of the angle. The snowpack is composed of ground-parallel layers that accumulate over the winter. Each layer contains ice grains that are representative of the distinct meteorological conditions during which the snow formed and was deposited. Once deposited, a snow layer continues to evolve under
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3424-470: Is lessened. This is caused by the loss of snow at the fence that would have been deposited and the pickup of the snow that is already there by the wind, which was depleted of snow at the fence. When there is a sufficient density of trees , they can greatly reduce the strength of avalanches. They hold snow in place and when there is an avalanche, the impact of the snow against the trees slows it down. Trees can either be planted or they can be conserved, such as in
3531-469: Is located (rather than splitting the region into "East/Central/West" subregions). That being said: It remains unclear why both Kootenay and Kootenay s are used somewhat interchangeably to describe the area. The plural form is in reference to The Kootenays , both East and West; the singular is in reference to the Kootenay Region . In practice the two terms are used interchangeably, although one indicates
3638-504: Is motivated by the observed difference in the causes of avalanche accidents in the two settings. In the recreational setting most accidents are caused by the people involved in the avalanche. In a 1996 study, Jamieson et al. (pages 7–20) found that 83% of all avalanches in the recreational setting were caused by those who were involved in the accident . In contrast, all the accidents in the residential, industrial, and transportation settings were due to spontaneous natural avalanches. Because of
3745-402: Is sufficiently unsettled and cold enough for precipitated snow to accumulate into a seasonal snowpack. Continentality , through its potentiating influence on the meteorological extremes experienced by snowpacks, is an important factor in the evolution of instabilities, and consequential occurrence of avalanches faster stabilization of the snowpack after storm cycles. The evolution of the snowpack
3852-583: The Columbia at Castlegar (illustrated by a , right) . In most interpretations, however, the region also includes: Some or all of the following areas to the north, which drain into the Columbia River, are also commonly included in the Kootenays: When the above regions are added, sometimes the region's name is morphed into Columbia-Kootenay or Kootenay-Columbia , although that terminology also includes
3959-667: The Rogers Pass avalanche in British Columbia , Canada. During World War I , an estimated 40,000 to 80,000 soldiers died as a result of avalanches during the mountain campaign in the Alps at the Austrian-Italian front, many of which were caused by artillery fire. Some 10,000 men, from both sides, died in avalanches in December 1916. In the northern hemisphere winter of 1950–1951 approximately 649 avalanches were recorded in
4066-496: The angle of repose , depends on a variety of factors, such as crystal form and moisture content. Some forms of drier and colder snow will only stick to shallower slopes, while wet and warm snow can bond to very steep surfaces. In coastal mountains, such as the Cordillera del Paine region of Patagonia , deep snowpacks collect on vertical and even overhanging rock faces. The slope angle that can allow moving snow to accelerate depends on
4173-488: The avalanche dam on Mount Stephen in Kicking Horse Pass , have been constructed to protect people and property by redirecting the flow of avalanches. Deep debris deposits from avalanches will collect in catchments at the terminus of a run out, such as gullies and river beds. Slopes flatter than 25 degrees or steeper than 60 degrees typically have a lower incidence of avalanches. Human-triggered avalanches have
4280-827: The Big Bend Country and Kinbasket Lake, to the north of Golden and Revelstoke, which is not generally considered part of the Kootenays, though part of the Kootenay Land District . Finally, the Boundary Country , a southern east–west corridor between the Okanagan and the Bonanza Pass and drained by the basins of the Kettle and Granby Rivers , is sometimes mentioned as being in the West Kootenay, and in other reckonings as being part of
4387-414: The Canyon Hot Springs Resort opened with a pool, campsite, restaurant and store. The cabins came later. The resort receives electricity from the CP transmission line. In 2020, the property was advertised for sale at $ 10,800,000. 1892: A freight train wrecked in the vicinity. 1894: Just west, an avalanche derailed the tender on a westbound passenger train. 1899: While attempting to board a moving train,
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4494-502: The Khumbu Icefall), triggering a movement of broken ice chunks. The resulting movement is more analogous to a rockfall or a landslide than a snow avalanche. They are typically very difficult to predict and almost impossible to mitigate. As an avalanche moves down a slope it follows a certain pathway that is dependent on the slope's degree of steepness and the volume of snow/ice involved in the mass movement . The origin of an avalanche
4601-513: The Kootenays could be described as the complete Canadian portion of the Columbia Basin minus lands drained by the Okanagan River . Contingent on the above boundaries, the Kootenays are commonly split either into East and West, or East, Central and West. In general use amongst locals of the area, the "East/West" convention is more common as a descriptor of where someone is from or where a town
4708-654: The Okanagan. In actuality, the settlement of the Boundary Country predates development in either of the regions it is now attached to, as is also the case with the Similkameen Country to the west of the Okanagan. In some descriptions, the Boundary Country includes Osoyoos and Oliver in the South Okanagan (rather than the other way around). The Boundary Country is (illustrated by h ) In the event of its inclusion,
4815-508: The SAMOS-AT avalanche simulation software and the RAMMS software. Preventative measures are employed in areas where avalanches pose a significant threat to people, such as ski resorts , mountain towns, roads, and railways. There are several ways to prevent avalanches and lessen their power and develop preventative measures to reduce the likelihood and size of avalanches by disrupting the structure of
4922-453: The Springs Hotel from John H. Skogstrom (see #Community ) , built a hotel at the 16-kilometre (10 mi) mark on the road. When the Waverley mine began shipping ore in November 1897, using horses, mules, and sleighs, proposals were developing to build a narrow-gauge railway line from Albert Canyon to the mine. Soon, more grandiose railway plans emerged for the northward line to connect with
5029-506: The Springs Hotel was in its final days, and the Presbyterians were holding regular services, which continued into the decade. The Revelstoke Sunday schools held their combined annual picnic for many years at Albert Canyon. By the late 1910s, Graham Thomas was the storekeeper, CP operated the only lodgings, and the population was about 85, soon increasing to 100. In 1924, the Morris family became
5136-430: The Springs Hotel, and Carlson leased the store to Andre Maroney, the former section foreman, who became postmaster 1899–1901. That year, Miss Ada W. Griffiths was the inaugural teacher at the school opening. During 1900, Dr. E.C. Paget, vicar of St. Peter's (Anglican), Revelstoke, visited to hold services. Skogstrom appears to have briefly leased the hotel to Carlson. Ben Green became postmaster 1901–1906, most likely after
5243-520: The Springs Hotel, and sold the store to his nephew, Charles Carlson, who added a storeroom. As storekeeper, Carlson was the inaugural postmaster 1897–1899. William J. White assumed management of the Springs hotel, and the Skogstrom liquor licence was transferred. That year, the community erected a schoolhouse, which was also used as a community hall, and for church services. In 1899, Skogstrom resumed control of
5350-506: The Tangier mine, continue north, then west, and finally south to Revelstoke. The Waverley mine erected a further warehouse at Albert Canyon, and Fred Forrest opened a store at the mine site. A sawmill was installed on the North fork to meet the expected lumber demands. When the avalanche danger ruled out any railway line, the Waverley mine quickly abandoned the assembly of the new concentrator plant at
5457-466: The United States. In 2001 it was reported that globally an average of 150 people die each year from avalanches. Three of the deadliest recorded avalanches have killed over a thousand people each. Doug Fesler and Jill Fredston developed a conceptual model of the three primary elements of avalanches: terrain, weather, and snowpack. Terrain describes the places where avalanches occur, weather describes
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#17330848811945564-458: The Waverley mine and other properties, which expanded over the following years. In 1921, Walters Investment Co. purchased the Waverley-Tangier mine properties. Small crews rehabilitated the sites in 1924 and 1925, and active exploration in 1929 was promising. In 1951, 10 kilometres (6 mi) of road repairs to the Tangier site were abandoned because of forest fires. In 1987, geological mapping
5671-408: The ambient air temperature can be much colder. When a temperature gradient greater than 10 °C change per vertical meter of snow is sustained for more than a day, angular crystals called depth hoar or facets begin forming in the snowpack because of rapid moisture transport along the temperature gradient. These angular crystals, which bond poorly to one another and the surrounding snow, often become
5778-430: The anticipated mining boom, CP added a long siding westward in 1898, and lengthened the wye southward. In 1910, a spark from a locomotive ignited leaves and timber near the tunnel 2 kilometres (1.25 mi) west. Initially controlled, the fire later spread, almost reaching the section house. Quarries in the area provided ballast for the region. A 1916 CP building program included a rooming and boarding house, cottages, and
5885-426: The avalanche's path to slow it down. Finally, along transportation corridors, large shelters, called snow sheds , can be built directly in the slide path of an avalanche to protect traffic from avalanches. Warning systems can detect avalanches which develop slowly, such as ice avalanches caused by icefalls from glaciers. Interferometric radars, high-resolution cameras, or motion sensors can monitor instable areas over
5992-556: The bioregion together under one magazine. It covers a range of topics including outdoor adventure, environmental issues, arts and culture, local events, and profiles of people living in the region. Avalanche An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow down a slope , such as a hill or mountain. Avalanches can be triggered spontaneously, by factors such as increased precipitation or snowpack weakening, or by external means such as humans, other animals, and earthquakes . Primarily composed of flowing snow and air, large avalanches have
6099-401: The building of a ski resort, to reduce the strength of avalanches. In turn, socio-environmental changes can influence the occurrence of damaging avalanches: some studies linking changes in land-use/land-cover patterns and the evolution of snow avalanche damage in mid latitude mountains show the importance of the role played by vegetation cover, that is at the root of the increase of damage when
6206-432: The bulk of the avalanche. Driving an avalanche is the component of the avalanche's weight parallel to the slope; as the avalanche progresses any unstable snow in its path will tend to become incorporated, so increasing the overall weight. This force will increase as the steepness of the slope increases, and diminish as the slope flattens. Resisting this are a number of components that are thought to interact with each other:
6313-435: The capability to capture and move ice, rocks, and trees. Avalanches occur in two general forms, or combinations thereof: slab avalanches made of tightly packed snow, triggered by a collapse of an underlying weak snow layer, and loose snow avalanches made of looser snow. After being set off, avalanches usually accelerate rapidly and grow in mass and volume as they capture more snow. If an avalanche moves fast enough, some of
6420-418: The car tumbled down an embankment, the occupants sustained only bruises. 1912: An avalanche toppled the locomotive and three cars of a wrecking train, killing one occupant and injuring three others. 1928: Upending two boarding cars, an avalanche killed four section crew and injured ten others. 1929: At Lauretta, which is 8.4 kilometres (5.2 mi) west of Albert Canyon, one engineer and a bystander died in
6527-409: The depths, crystal forms, and layering of the seasonal snowpack. Slab avalanches are formed frequently in snow that has been deposited, or redeposited by wind. They have the characteristic appearance of a block (slab) of snow cut out from its surroundings by fractures. Elements of slab avalanches include a crown fracture at the top of the start zone, flank fractures on the sides of the start zones, and
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#17330848811946634-672: The difference in the causes of avalanche accidents, and the activities pursued in the two settings, avalanche and disaster management professionals have developed two related preparedness, rescue, and recovery strategies for each of the settings. Two avalanches occurred in March 1910 in the Cascade and Selkirk Mountain ranges; on 1 March the Wellington avalanche killed 96 in Washington state , United States. Three days later 62 railroad workers were killed in
6741-519: The early 20th century, notably the work of Professor Lagotala in preparation for the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix . His method was developed by A. Voellmy and popularised following the publication in 1955 of his Ueber die Zerstoerungskraft von Lawinen (On the Destructive Force of Avalanches). Voellmy used a simple empirical formula, treating an avalanche as a sliding block of snow moving with
6848-605: The economy. Several coworking and innovation centres have sprouted including Kootenay Lake Innovation Centre . A number of Community Radio stations exist in the region, most notably CJLY-FM in Nelson, CIDO-FM in Creston and Stoke FM in Revelstoke. These stations usually operate either as Cooperatives or as non-profit Societies . Since 2001, The Kootenay Mountain Culture has brought
6955-532: The fact that each avalanche is unique depending on the stability of the snowpack that it was derived from as well as the environmental or human influences that triggered the mass movement. People caught in avalanches can die from suffocation , trauma, or hypothermia . From "1950–1951 to 2020–2021" there were 1,169 people who died in avalanches in the United States. For the 11-year period ending April 2006, 445 people died in avalanches throughout North America. On average, 28 people die in avalanches every winter in
7062-452: The flow of a wet snow avalanche can plough through soft snow, and can scour boulders, earth, trees, and other vegetation; leaving exposed and often scored ground in the avalanche track. Wet snow avalanches can be initiated from either loose snow releases, or slab releases, and only occur in snowpacks that are water saturated and isothermally equilibrated to the melting point of water. The isothermal characteristic of wet snow avalanches has led to
7169-460: The friction between the avalanche and the surface beneath; friction between the air and snow within the fluid; fluid-dynamic drag at the leading edge of the avalanche; shear resistance between the avalanche and the air through which it is passing, and shear resistance between the fragments within the avalanche itself. An avalanche will continue to accelerate until the resistance exceeds the forward force. Attempts to model avalanche behaviour date from
7276-522: The government dispatched Walter Moberly to explore from Kamloops to the Canadian Rockies . He was the first European to penetrate the valley of the Illecillewaet, including Albert Canyon. However, the gorge, 4 kilometres (2.5 mi) east of the station, was named after Albert Rogers, who accompanied his uncle, Major A.B.Rogers , on the exploration of Rogers Pass in 1881. Albert Canyon, one of
7383-470: The greatest incidence when the snow's angle of repose is between 35 and 45 degrees; the critical angle, the angle at which human-triggered avalanches are most frequent, is 38 degrees. When the incidence of human triggered avalanches is normalized by the rates of recreational use, however, hazard increases uniformly with slope angle, and no significant difference in hazard for a given exposure direction can be found. The rule of thumb is: A slope that
7490-866: The ground surface beneath the snowpack influences the stability of the snowpack, either being a source of strength or weakness. Avalanches are unlikely to form in very thick forests, but boulders and sparsely distributed vegetation can create weak areas deep within the snowpack through the formation of strong temperature gradients. Full-depth avalanches (avalanches that sweep a slope virtually clean of snow cover) are more common on slopes with smooth ground, such as grass or rock slabs. Generally speaking, avalanches follow drainages down-slope, frequently sharing drainage features with summertime watersheds. At and below tree line , avalanche paths through drainages are well defined by vegetation boundaries called trim lines , which occur where avalanches have removed trees and prevented regrowth of large vegetation. Engineered drainages, such as
7597-508: The influence of the meteorological conditions that prevail after deposition. For an avalanche to occur, it is necessary that a snowpack have a weak layer (or instability) below a slab of cohesive snow. In practice the formal mechanical and structural factors related to snowpack instability are not directly observable outside of laboratories, thus the more easily observed properties of the snow layers (e.g. penetration resistance, grain size, grain type, temperature) are used as index measurements of
7704-467: The late 1880s until at least 1910 made a five-minute stop for passengers to alight and view the Illecillewaet River rushing through the 6-metre (20 ft) wide gorge 91 metres (300 ft) below. A stone parapet later replaced the wooden lookout on a rock outcrop. The final train to stop was in 1939. A dispatcher staffed the station telegraph office. A wye and water tank existed. To satisfy
7811-441: The late 1940s at least until the late 1950s. After a couple of shorter incumbents, Robert Arthur Woolsey was the final postmaster 1955–1966. A store operated at that time. During the Rogers Pass highway construction , a camp existed at Albert Canyon. An all-season gravel highway, which linked westward to Revelstoke from 1960, was paved in 1961. The school closed in 1966. By the 1970s, the hamlet comprised deserted buildings. In 1975,
7918-413: The likelihood of an avalanche. Observation and experience has shown that newly fallen snow requires time to bond with the snow layers beneath it, especially if the new snow falls during very cold and dry conditions. If ambient air temperatures are cold enough, shallow snow above or around boulders, plants, and other discontinuities in the slope, weakens from rapid crystal growth that occurs in the presence of
8025-450: The local humidity, water vapour flux, temperature and heat flux. The top of the snowpack is also extensively influenced by incoming radiation and the local air flow. One of the aims of avalanche research is to develop and validate computer models that can describe the evolution of the seasonal snowpack over time. A complicating factor is the complex interaction of terrain and weather, which causes significant spatial and temporal variability of
8132-526: The mechanical properties of the snow (e.g. tensile strength , friction coefficients, shear strength , and ductile strength ). This results in two principal sources of uncertainty in determining snowpack stability based on snow structure: First, both the factors influencing snow stability and the specific characteristics of the snowpack vary widely within small areas and time scales, resulting in significant difficulty extrapolating point observations of snow layers across different scales of space and time. Second,
8239-421: The meteorological conditions that create the snowpack, and snowpack describes the structural characteristics of snow that make avalanche formation possible. Avalanche formation requires a slope shallow enough for snow to accumulate but steep enough for the snow to accelerate once set in motion by the combination of mechanical failure (of the snowpack) and gravity. The angle of the slope that can hold snow, called
8346-414: The new snow has insufficient time to bond to underlying snow layers. Rain has a similar effect. In the short term, rain causes instability because, like a heavy snowfall, it imposes an additional load on the snowpack and once rainwater seeps down through the snow, acts as a lubricant, reducing the natural friction between snow layers that holds the snowpack together. Most avalanches happen during or soon after
8453-427: The night and of unstable surface snow during the day. Slopes in the lee of a ridge or of another wind obstacle accumulate more snow and are more likely to include pockets of deep snow, wind slabs , and cornices , all of which, when disturbed, may result in avalanche formation. Conversely, the snowpack on a windward slope is often much shallower than on a lee slope. Avalanches and avalanche paths share common elements:
8560-404: The original Canadian Pacific Railway (CP) stations opened to regular service in 1886, was the Rogers Pass , then Connaught Tunnel , western slope base for pusher locomotives , which predominantly assisted eastbound freight trains up the 2.5 grade. The station name derives from the gorge, where the track crosses the south wall of the short box canyon on a narrow ledge. All passenger trains from
8667-407: The path. The frequency with which avalanches form in a given area is known as the return period . The start zone of an avalanche must be steep enough to allow snow to accelerate once set in motion, additionally convex slopes are less stable than concave slopes because of the disparity between the tensile strength of snow layers and their compressive strength . The composition and structure of
8774-414: The prevention of development in these areas. To mitigate the effect of avalanches the construction of artificial barriers can be very effective in reducing avalanche damage. There are several types: One kind of barrier ( snow net ) uses a net strung between poles that are anchored by guy wires in addition to their foundations. These barriers are similar to those used for rockslides . Another type of barrier
8881-550: The protective forest is deforested (because of demographic growth, intensive grazing and industrial or legal causes), and at the root of the decrease of damage because of the transformation of a traditional land-management system based on overexploitation into a system based on land marginalization and reforestation, something that has happened mainly since the mid-20th century in mountain environments of developed countries. In many areas, regular avalanche tracks can be identified and precautions can be taken to minimize damage, such as
8988-455: The province of Bayburt , Turkey . A large avalanche in Montroc, France , in 1999, 300,000 cubic metres of snow slid on a 30° slope, achieving a speed in the region of 100 km/h (62 mph). It killed 12 people in their chalets under 100,000 tons of snow, 5 meters (16 feet) deep. The mayor of Chamonix was convicted of second-degree murder for not evacuating the area, but received
9095-767: The recent work was carried out as part of the SATSIE (Avalanche Studies and Model Validation in Europe) research project supported by the European Commission which produced the leading-edge MN2L model, now in use with the Service Restauration des Terrains en Montagne (Mountain Rescue Service) in France, and D2FRAM (Dynamical Two-Flow-Regime Avalanche Model), which was still undergoing validation as of 2007. Other known models are
9202-409: The relationship between readily observable snowpack characteristics and the snowpack's critical mechanical properties has not been completely developed. While the deterministic relationship between snowpack characteristics and snowpack stability is still a matter of ongoing scientific study, there is a growing empirical understanding of the snow composition and deposition characteristics that influence
9309-453: The secondary term of isothermal slides found in the literature (for example in Daffern, 1999, p. 93). At temperate latitudes wet snow avalanches are frequently associated with climatic avalanche cycles at the end of the winter season, when there is significant daytime warming. An ice avalanche occurs when a large piece of ice, such as from a serac or calving glacier, falls onto ice (such as
9416-419: The site. In 1900, the Tangier mine closed. When Goldfields of BC had been floated in 1897 for £2 million, the Tangier and Waverley mines were the prime properties. After the speculative frenzy evaporated, Marble Bay Mines purchased all the equipment (sawmill, compressor plant, concentrator plant, and stores) from the liquidators in 1901 for shipping to Texada Island . In the mid 1910s, there was some activity at
9523-416: The slab may not have time to adjust to the new load. Even on a clear day, wind can quickly load a slope with snow by blowing snow from one place to another. Top-loading occurs when wind deposits snow from the top of a slope; cross-loading occurs when wind deposits snow parallel to the slope. When a wind blows over the top of a mountain, the leeward, or downwind, side of the mountain experiences top-loading, from
9630-413: The snow may mix with the air, forming a powder snow avalanche . Though they appear to share similarities, avalanches are distinct from slush flows , mudslides , rock slides , and serac collapses. They are also different from large scale movements of ice . Avalanches can happen in any mountain range that has an enduring snowpack. They are most frequent in winter or spring, but may occur at any time of
9737-429: The snowpack can hide below well-consolidated surface layers. Uncertainty associated with the empirical understanding of the factors influencing snow stability leads most professional avalanche workers to recommend conservative use of avalanche terrain relative to current snowpack instability. Avalanches only occur in a standing snowpack. Typically winter seasons at high latitudes, high altitudes, or both have weather that
9844-423: The snowpack, and the heat stored in the snow is re-radiated into the atmosphere. When a slab avalanche forms, the slab disintegrates into increasingly smaller fragments as the snow travels downhill. If the fragments become small enough the outer layer of the avalanche, called a saltation layer, takes on the characteristics of a fluid . When sufficiently fine particles are present they can become airborne and, given
9951-460: The snowpack, such as melting due to solar radiation, is the second-largest cause of natural avalanches. Other natural causes include rain, earthquakes, rockfall, and icefall. Artificial triggers of avalanches include skiers, snowmobiles, and controlled explosive work. Contrary to popular belief, avalanches are not triggered by loud sound; the pressure from sound is orders of magnitude too small to trigger an avalanche. Avalanche initiation can start at
10058-479: The snowpack, while passive measures reinforce and stabilize the snowpack in situ . The simplest active measure is repeatedly traveling on a snowpack as snow accumulates; this can be by means of boot-packing, ski-cutting, or machine grooming . Explosives are used extensively to prevent avalanches, by triggering smaller avalanches that break down instabilities in the snowpack, and removing overburden that can result in larger avalanches. Explosive charges are delivered by
10165-402: The snowpack; conversely, very cold, windy, or hot weather will weaken the snowpack. At temperatures close to the freezing point of water, or during times of moderate solar radiation, a gentle freeze-thaw cycle will take place. The melting and refreezing of water in the snow strengthens the snowpack during the freezing phase and weakens it during the thawing phase. A rapid rise in temperature, to
10272-414: The station and hotel, renamed that year as The Springs Hotel. In 1897, Skogstrom built a store. Meanwhile, Green developed mining interests. Expecting an exponential growth in mining, and Albert Canyon becoming a key centre, Grant Govan wanted to purchase 40 hectares (100 acres) from Skogstrom to build the town site. J.P. Kennedy and T.E. Marshall planned to erect a $ 15,000 hotel. In 1898, Skogstom renovated
10379-410: The store had shuttered. In 1903, the two thermal pools and a new changing facility were described as being over 1.2 kilometres (.75 mi) away. By 1906, six houses stood at the gorge, and several tourist cabins existed on the Waverley road. That year, Rev L.E. Gosling, a Presbyterian missionary, resided in the hamlet, while he ministered along the CP line. A.E. Shark was postmaster 1906–1909. In 1908,
10486-412: The store owner, but Mrs. Jessie E. Crabbe ran the business. The latter was postmaster 1927–1929, and the population was about 60. The Union Mission conducted the church services 1927–1932. Returning as storekeeper, Charles Carlson was postmaster 1929–1950. The store and CP boarding house appear to have closed in the late 1930s. Throughout the 1940s, the population was just over 40. A sawmill existed from
10593-401: The strength. The load is straightforward; it is the weight of the snow. However, the strength of the snowpack is much more difficult to determine and is extremely heterogeneous. It varies in detail with properties of the snow grains, size, density, morphology, temperature, water content; and the properties of the bonds between the grains. These properties may all metamorphose in time according to
10700-421: The top to the bottom of that lee slope. When the wind blows across a ridge that leads up the mountain, the leeward side of the ridge is subject to cross-loading. Cross-loaded wind-slabs are usually difficult to identify visually. Snowstorms and rainstorms are important contributors to avalanche danger. Heavy snowfall will cause instability in the existing snowpack, both because of the additional weight and because
10807-405: The vicinity. 1906: Three miles east, the wheels of a construction train fatally crushed the spine of a section hand who was crossing beneath a car when it began to move. 1908: When an avalanche swept two section crew boarding cars from the track, at least five of the 40 occupants died. 1910: An avalanche struck a car carrying senior staff being hauled by a rotary snowplow in the area. Although
10914-449: The warmer months. In addition to industrially manufactured barriers, landscaped barriers, called avalanche dams stop or deflect avalanches with their weight and strength. These barriers are made out of concrete, rocks, or earth. They are usually placed right above the structure, road, or railway that they are trying to protect, although they can also be used to channel avalanches into other barriers. Occasionally, earth mounds are placed in
11021-483: The year. In mountainous areas, avalanches are among the most serious natural hazards to life and property, so great efforts are made in avalanche control . There are many classification systems for the different forms of avalanches. Avalanches can be described by their size, destructive potential, initiation mechanism, composition, and dynamics . Most avalanches occur spontaneously during storms under increased load due to snowfall and/or erosion . Metamorphic changes in
11128-597: Was conducted at both locations. A.J. Strand, a mixed farmer , in the Skogstrom & Strand hotel partnership, ran the Hot Springs hotel from the late 1880s. The warm spring for bathing was said, somewhat optimistically, to be a few hundred yards south. At that time, the population was about 25. When Strand relocated, John H. Skogstrom, a farmer, became hotelkeeper in the mid-1890s. That year, Ben Green bought 16 hectares (40 acres) from Skogstrom. Both Skogstrom and Green lost farm produce in an 1896 forest fire that even endangered
11235-518: Was destroyed in 1971. In the late 1880s, the government built a 13-kilometre (8.25 mi) wagon road from the station, across the Illecillwaet River, and up the Tangier River (then called the North fork) to serve the branch trails to various mines. However, this artery was little more than a trail itself. The road reached the famous Jumbo Mine of Corbie, Kennedy & Co. In 1897, Grant Govan,
11342-457: Was snowboarding recreationally in this backcountry, bowl-shaped run and triggered the avalanche. He was carried nearly 2,000 feet to the base of the mountain and was not successfully rescued. On 28 January 2003, the Tatra Mountains avalanche swept away nine out of a thirteen-member group heading to the summit of Rysy in the Tatra Mountains . The participants of the trip were students from
11449-489: Was successfully performed. 1902: The engineer and fireman were found negligent when a locomotive and eight cars of a westbound freight train derailed, tearing up part of the station platform. The engineer sustained burns and other crew members bruises. 1903: The fireman was scalded when an avalanche derailed a locomotive and one car. 1904: A second avalanche killed two workers, and injured several others, while clearing an earlier slide. 1905: A freight locomotive derailed in
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