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51-446: Alba Fucens was an ancient Italic town located at 1,000 m (3,300 ft) elevation at the base of Monte Velino , approximately 6.5 km (4.0 mi) north of Avezzano , Abruzzo , central Italy. Its ruins can be found in the comune of Massa d'Albe . The city is largely visible after excavation and is probably the most important ancient site in Abruzzo. It was originally

102-555: A macellum . The Macellum of Pompeii was a provisional market located in the Forum of Pompeii. Some of the buildings have been dated to 130–120 BC. A section of the East side of the macellum is thought to be dedicated to the imperial cult . If true, this would show the important role that the emperors played in the lives of the Romans in the early 1st century. Parts of the macellum were damaged in

153-403: A couple of steps (a podium), with a ring of columns supporting a domed roof. A macellum is usually square in shape. The central courtyard of the macellum is surrounded by tabernae , shops, all of the same size. It was also possible to extend the macellum upwards to include upper stories. Entrance to the macellum was either through central gates on each of the four sides or through some of

204-562: A dominant position among the Italic tribes. Frequent conflict between various Italic tribes followed. The best documented of these are the wars between the Latins and the Samnites . The Latins eventually succeeded in unifying the Italic elements in the country. Many non-Latin Italic tribes adopted Latin culture and acquired Roman citizenship. During this time Italic colonies were established throughout

255-558: A hill just to the north of the Via Valeria , which was prolonged beyond Tibur probably at this very period. In the Second Punic War Alba at first remained faithful and in 211 BC sent a contingent of 2,000 men to help Rome, but afterwards refused to send contingents and was punished. After this it became a regular place of detention for important state prisoners such as Syphax of Numidia , Perseus of Macedonia , Bituitus , king of

306-611: A series of publications of the site. The statue of Venus and other finds are at the National Museum of the Abruzzi at Chieti. Since 2007 new excavations have been led by Brussels University, and amongst the most spectacular finds were a painted calendar and fasti . 42°04′47.62″N 13°24′32.34″E  /  42.0798944°N 13.4089833°E  / 42.0798944; 13.4089833 Italic people The Italics were an ethnolinguistic group who are identified by their use of

357-614: A town of the Aequi , though on the frontier of the Marsi , but was occupied by a Latin colony (303-4 BC) owing to its strategic importance. Initially it was populated by 6,000 settlers who built a wall in the years immediately following their settlement. The following year they had to defend themselves from the attacks of the Aequi who, unable to tolerate the presence of a fortified Latin citadel on their territory, tried to conquer it without success. It lay on

408-543: Is one of the richer archeological sites of Northern Italy . In the early Iron Age, the relatively homogeneous Proto-Villanovan culture (1200-900 BC), closely associated with the Celtic Hallstatt culture of Alpine Austria, characterised by the introduction of iron-working and the practice of cremation coupled with the burial of ashes in distinctive pottery, shows a process of fragmentation and regionalisation. In Tuscany and in part of Emilia-Romagna, Latium and Campania ,

459-661: Is suggested by the presence of weapons in burials, the appearance of the horse in Italy at this time and material similarities with cultures of Central Europe . According to David W. Anthony , between 3100 and 3000 BC, a massive migration of Proto-Indo-Europeans from the Yamnaya culture took place into the Danube Valley . Thousands of kurgans are attributed to this event. These migrations probably split off Pre-Italic , Pre-Celtic and Pre-Germanic from Proto-Indo-European . By this time

510-528: Is the only monastic church in Abruzzo in which the central nave is separated from the lateral ones by ancient columns. The collegiate church of S. Nicola contains a remarkable staurotheca of the 11th century, and a wooden triptych in imitation of the Byzantine style with enamels, of the 13th century. Discovered in 1949 after excavations carried out by the Belgian University of Louvain, the project led to

561-510: Is to some extent supported by the observation that Italic shares a large number of isoglosses and lexical terms with Celtic and Germanic , some of which are more likely to be attributed to the Bronze Age . In particular, using Bayesian phylogenetic methods, Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson argued that Proto-Italic speakers separated from Proto-Germanics 5500 years before present, i.e. roughly at

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612-643: The Anatolian peoples and the Tocharians had already split off from other Indo-Europeans. Hydronymy shows that the Proto-Germanic homeland was in Central Germany , which would be very close to the homeland of Italic and Celtic languages as well. The origin of a hypothetical ancestral "Italo-Celtic" people is to be found in today's eastern Hungary , settled around 3100 BC by the Yamnaya culture . This hypothesis

663-509: The Arverni . It was attacked by the allies in the Social War , but remained faithful to Rome; and its strong position rendered it a place of some importance in the civil wars. In the struggle between Sulla and Marius, the city sided with the latter and at the end of the conflict Sulla, to punish it and at the same time satisfy the requests of one of his lieutenants, Metellus Pius, distributed part of

714-1101: The Atellan Farce comedies, and some architectural testimonies such as the theater of Pietrabbondante in Molise , and that of Nocera Superiore on which the Romans built their own. The construction of the Samnite theaters of Pietrabbondante and Nocera make the architectural filiation of the Greek theater understood. Pontic Steppe Caucasus East Asia Eastern Europe Northern Europe Pontic Steppe Northern/Eastern Steppe Europe South Asia Steppe Europe Caucasus India Indo-Aryans Iranians East Asia Europe East Asia Europe Indo-Aryan Iranian Indo-Aryan Iranian Others European A genetic study published in Science in November 2019 examined

765-626: The Copper Age , at the same time that metalworking appeared, Indo-European speaking peoples are believed to have migrated to Italy in several waves. Associated with this migration are the Remedello culture and Rinaldone culture in Northern and Central Italy , and the Gaudo culture of Southern Italy . These cultures were led by a warrior-aristocracy and are considered intrusive. Their Indo-European character

816-516: The Encyclopædia Britannica , which contends that «Italy attained a unified ethnolinguistic, political, and cultural physiognomy only after the Roman conquest, yet its most ancient peoples remain anchored in the names of the regions of Roman Italy — Latium , Campania , Apulia , Bruttium , Lucania , Emilia Romagna , Samnium , Picenum , Umbria , Etruria , Venetia , and Liguria ». During

867-561: The Italic languages , which form one of the branches of Indo-European languages . Outside of the specialised linguistic literature, the term is also used to describe the ancient peoples of Italy as defined in Roman times, including pre- Roman peoples like the Etruscans and the Raetians , who did not speak Indo-European languages. Such use is improper in linguistics, but employed by sources such as

918-546: The Late Bronze Age collapse . The Proto-Villanovan culture dominated the peninsula and replaced the preceding Apennine culture . The Proto-Villanovans practiced cremation and buried the ashes of their dead in Urnfield-style double-cone shaped funerary urns, often decorated with geometric designs. Elite graves containing jewellery, bronze armour and horse harness fittings were separated from ordinary graves, showing for

969-721: The Osco - Umbrians began to emigrate in various waves, through the process of Ver sacrum , the ritualized extension of colonies, in southern Latium, Molise and the whole southern half of the peninsula, replacing the previous tribes, such as the Opici and the Oenotrians . This corresponds with the emergence of the Terni culture, which had strong similarities with the Celtic cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène . The Umbrian necropolis of Terni , which dates back to

1020-637: The Proto-Villanovan culture . They later crossed the Apennine Mountains and settled central Italy, including Latium . Before 1000 BC several Italic tribes had probably entered Italy. These divided into various groups and gradually came to occupy central Italy and southern Italy. This period was characterized by widespread upheaval in the Mediterranean, including the emergence of the Sea Peoples and

1071-450: The vine , wheat and flax . The Latino-Faliscan people have been associated with this culture, especially by the archaeologist Luigi Pigorini . The Urnfield culture might have brought proto-Italic people from among the "Italo-Celtic" tribes who remained in Hungary into Italy. These tribes are thought to have penetrated Italy from the east during the late second millennium BC through

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1122-535: The 10th century BC, was identical in every aspect to the Celtic necropolis of the Golasecca culture. By the mid-first millennium BC, the Latins of Rome were growing in power and influence. This led to the establishment of ancient Roman civilization . In order to combat the non-Italic Etruscans, several Italic tribes united in the Latin League . After the Latins had liberated themselves from Etruscan rule they acquired

1173-564: The Greek theater before contacts with Magna Graecia and its theatrical traditions. There are no architectural and artistic testimonies of the Etruscan theater. A very late source, such as the historian Varro , mentions the name of a certain Volnio who wrote tragedies in the Etruscan language . Even the Samnites had original representational forms that had a lot of influence on Roman dramaturgy such as

1224-625: The Prefect of the Praetorium Nevius Sutorius Macro, born in Alba. There are numerous houses belonging to the local patricians including a domus . On the side of the Pettorino hill are the remains of the Roman theatre's cavea. Remains of the 10 km long Roman aqueduct, built as early as the 1st century BC, are visible especially of the siphon-bridge in the locality of Arci, 1.5 km NE of

1275-784: The Proto-Villanovan culture was followed by the Villanovan culture . The earliest remains of Villanovan culture date back to circa 900 BC. In the region south of the Tiber ( Latium Vetus ), the Latial culture of the Latins emerged, while in the north-east of the peninsula the Este culture of the Veneti appeared. Roughly in the same period, from their core area in central Italy (modern-day Umbria and Sabina region),

1326-735: The Via Valeria and went to Alba Fucens, which due to its strategic position made it possible to maintain contact with Octavian and, if necessary, prevent Antony from passing through towards the Adriatic. Cicero said of the incident: Now this legion [the Martia] is quartered in Alba Fucens. What other city could one choose, well fortified and nearby, or more suitable for its natural position for military operations, or more faithful, or inhabited by braver or more attached citizens to our Republic? Its prosperity, in

1377-560: The appearance of Polada culture is connected to the movement of new populations coming from southern Germany and from Switzerland . According to Bernard Sergent , the origin of the Ligurian linguistic family (in his opinion distantly related to the Celtic and Italic ones) would have to be found in the Polada and Rhone cultures, southern branches of the Unetice culture . These individuals settled in

1428-444: The central tholos have been suggested, such as the place where official weights and measures were held for reference or as shrines to the gods of the market place (due to excavated coins). Some macella had a water fountain or water feature in the centre of their courtyard instead of a tholos structure. It is the presence of this central water feature which seems to denote a building a macellum . Macellum Liviae ("market of Livia")

1479-597: The coasts of Sardinia and Sicily . The Beakers could have been the link which brought the Yamnaya dialects from Hungary to Austria and Bavaria . These dialects might then have developed into Proto-Celtic . The arrival of Indo-Europeans into Italy is in some sources ascribed to the Beakers. A migration across the Alps from East-Central Europe by early Indo-Europeans is thought to have occurred around 1800 BC. According to Barfield

1530-629: The country, and non-Italic elements eventually adopted the Latin language and culture in a process known as Romanization . In the early first century BC, several Italic tribes, in particular the Marsi and the Samnites, rebelled against Roman rule. This conflict is called the Social War . After Roman victory was secured, all peoples in Italy, except for the Celts of the Po Valley, were granted Roman citizenship . In

1581-524: The faces smoothed. The arrangement of the gates is clearly traceable; as a rule they come at the end of a long, straight stretch of wall, and are placed so as to leave the right side of any attacking force exposed. On the north is, for a length of about 150 m, a triple line of defences of later date (possibly added by the Roman colonists), as both the city wall proper, and the double wall thrown out in front of it are partly constructed of concrete, and faced with finer polygonal masonry. The forum (142 x 44 m)

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1632-474: The first time the development of a highly hierarchical society, so characteristic of Indo-European cultures . The burial characteristics relate the Proto-Villanovan culture to the Central European Urnfield culture and Celtic Hallstatt culture that succeeded it. It is not possible to tell these apart in their earlier stages. Generally speaking, Proto-Villanovan settlements have been found in almost

1683-713: The foothills of the Eastern Alps and present a material culture similar to contemporary cultures of Switzerland, Southern Germany, and Austria. In the mid-second millennium BCE, the Terramare culture developed in the Po Valley. The Terramare culture takes its name from the black earth ( terra marna ) residue of settlement mounds, which have long served the fertilizing needs of local farmers. These people were still hunters, but had domesticated animals; they were fairly skillful metallurgists, casting bronze in moulds of stone and clay, and they were also agriculturists, cultivating beans ,

1734-424: The forum and basilica, providing a place in which a market could be held. Each macellum sold different kinds of produce, depending on local availability, but it was not uncommon to import these comestibles, especially at ports like Pompeii . The macellum was a food market, particularly for meat, fish and delicatessen . Plautus mentioned such a macellum in the second half of the 3rd century BC. The macellum

1785-551: The imperial period, is testified by the inscriptions found. One of particular importance relates to the fate of the nearby Fucino river which dried up following the building of the Tunnels of Claudius to drain the lake in the 1st century by the emperor Claudius . In 537 it was occupied by the Byzantines during the Gothic war, its last mention in history by Procopius of Caesarea . The town

1836-545: The indigenous Ligurians , produced the mixed Golasecca culture . Canegrate had a cultural dynamic, as expressed in its pottery and bronzework, that was completely new to the area and was a typical example of the western Hallstatt culture . The name comes from the locality of Canegrate in Lombardy, south of Legnano and 25 km north of Milan , where Guido Sutermeister discovered important archaeological finds (approximately 50 tombs with ceramics and metallic objects). It

1887-530: The pipes to reduce the depth of the siphon and hence the water pressure and associated leakage. In the urban centre were the temple of Isis and the sanctuary of Hercules. The hill at the western end of the town was occupied by the Temple of Apollo of the Tuscan order from the 2nd c. BC, the remarkable remains of which are incorporated in a beautiful Romanesque church of San Pietro which contains some Cosmatesque mosaics. It

1938-434: The presence of about 25–35% steppe ancestry . Overall, the genetic differentiation between the Latins, Etruscans and the preceding proto-villanovan population of Italy was found to be insignificant. Macellum A macellum ( pl. : macella ; Greek : μάκελλον , makellon ) is an ancient Roman indoor market building that sold mostly provisions (especially meat and fish). The building normally sat alongside

1989-553: The proto- Italics into the Italian peninsula . In the 13th century BC, Proto- Celts (probably the ancestors of the Lepontii people), coming from the area of modern-day Switzerland , eastern France and south-western Germany ( RSFO Urnfield group), entered Northern Italy ( Lombardy , eastern Piedmont and Ticino ), starting the Canegrate culture , who not long time after, merging with

2040-422: The remains of six Latin males buried near Rome between 900 BC and 200 BC. They carried the paternal haplogroups R-M269 , R-311 , R-PF7589 and R-P312 and the maternal haplogroups H1aj1a , T2c1f , H2a , U4a1a , H11a and H10 . A female from the preceding Proto-Villanovan culture carried the maternal haplogroups U5a2b . These examined individuals were distinguished from preceding populations of Italy by

2091-605: The start of the Bronze Age. This is further confirmed by the fact that the Germanic language family shares more vocabulary with the Italic family than with the Celtic language family. From the late third to the early second millennium BC, tribes coming both from the north and from Franco-Iberia brought the Beaker culture and the use of bronze smithing, to the Po Valley , to Tuscany and to

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2142-405: The subsequent centuries, Italic tribes were assimilated into Latin culture in a process known as Romanization . Italian peoples such as the Etruscans had already developed forms of theatrical literature. The legend, also reported by Livy , speaks of a pestilence that had struck Rome, at the beginning, and the request for Etruscan historians. The Roman historian thus refused the filiation from

2193-448: The tabernae themselves. It appears that the tabernae set aside for butchers ( carnificēs ) were together in one area of the macellum where they were provided with marble counters, presumably to keep the meat cooler, and drains for the removal of water and fluid waste. It has been suggested that the central tholos, also well provided with water and drains, was where fish was sold (due to excavated fish skeletons), although other uses for

2244-417: The territory of Alba Fucens to the latter's veterans. In the conflict between Caesar and Pompey, it hosted a garrison of six cohorts of Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 54 BC) then surrendered to the legions of Caesar. In 44 BC, the legion Martia (enrolled from the Marsi) mutinied against the consul Mark Antony and went over to the side of Octavian . The Martia, leaving the coast road at Aternum, took

2295-410: The town. Its source was the Sant'Eugenia spring beyond the pass of Fonte Capo la Maina near the hamlet of Santa Jona. The last 3 km was unusually built using a pressured pipeline as an inverted siphon across a valley. At Arci is the venter of the inverted siphon, an embankment 12 m wide and over 130 m long increasing in height with the valley depth and at the deepest point was a bridge with arches carrying

2346-403: The whole Italian peninsula from Veneto to eastern Sicily, although they were most numerous in the northern-central part of Italy. The most important settlements excavated are those of Frattesina in Veneto region, Bismantova in Emilia-Romagna and near the Monti della Tolfa , north of Rome . Various authors, such as Marija Gimbutas , associated this culture with the arrival, or the spread, of

2397-421: Was a shopping complex built by Augustus in the name of his wife Livia , built on the Esquiline Hill in Rome. The Macellum Magnum was a market building located on the Caelian Hill in Rome. The complex was built and dedicated by the emperor Nero in AD 59 and the location of the ancient structure likely corresponded to the current location of the church of S. Stefano Rotondo . The Macellum of Pozzuoli

2448-417: Was completely destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th century. The city streets and many buildings built on a Hippodamian orthogonal plan are clearly exposed. On the northern side is a large terrace surrounded by a portico attached to an exedra . The city walls of about 3 km circumference are well preserved and constructed of polygonal masonry of uncertain date; the blocks are carefully jointed, and

2499-418: Was first excavated in the 1750s, when the discovery of a statue of Serapis led to the building being misidentified as the city's Serapeum or Temple of Serapis. Standing columns with bands of boreholes left by marine mollusks showed that the height of the buildings had varied in relation to sea level, and made it the subject of debate in early geology . Subsequent excavations exposed the characteristic plan of

2550-411: Was modeled after the agora of Greek and Hellenistic cities, except that there was no wholesale trade. The last macella were still in operation in Constantinople in the sixth century AD. A macellum is a fairly easy building to identify from its design. A macellum provides shops arranged around a courtyard which contains a central tholos . The tholos is a round structure, usually built upon

2601-402: Was overlooked by the basilica built (end of the 2nd century BC to first decades of the following century), the macellum (market) from the same era and the baths of the late Republican age, but enlarged in the imperial era. The baths were decorated with precious mosaics depicting marine scenes and subjects. The well-preserved amphitheatre (96 x 79 m) from the reign of Tiberius was built by

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