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152-568: Approximately 428 JD students attended Alabama Law during school year 2022–2023. 51 undergraduate institutions, 23 states, and 3 countries are represented among the class of 2026, and the student-faculty ratio is 6.7 to 1. Alabama Law offers the Juris Doctor (J.D.) degree, as well as an International LL.M. , an LL.M. in Taxation, and an LL.M. in Business Transactions. In conjunction with

304-853: A Juris Doctor program, applicants must have completed a minimum of two or three years of study toward a bachelor's degree and scored well on the North American Law School Admission Test . Notwithstanding the formal requirements, nearly all successful applicants have completed undergraduate degrees before admission to a JD program. The JD in Canada is considered to be a bachelor's degree qualification. All Canadian Juris Doctor programs consist of three years and have similar content in their mandatory first year courses, including public law, property law, tort law, contract law, criminal law and legal research and writing. Beyond first year and other courses required for graduation, course selection

456-429: A bar examination , except from the state of Wisconsin. United States Patent and Trademark Office also involves a specialized " Patent Bar " which requires applicants to hold a bachelor's degree or the equivalent in certain scientific or engineering fields alongside their Juris Doctor degree in order to practice in patent cases —prosecuting patent applications — before it. This additional requirement does not apply to

608-610: A peer-reviewed academic journal . The best-known research degree title in the English-speaking world , is Doctor of Philosophy (abbreviated Ph.D., PhD or, at some British universities, DPhil ) awarded in many countries throughout the world. In the U.S., for instance, although the most typical research doctorate is the PhD, accounting for about 98% of the research doctorates awarded, there are more than 15 other names for research doctorates. Other research-oriented doctorates (some having

760-755: A DPhil) was awarded at the University of Oxford . Following the MD, the next professional doctorate in the US, the Juris Doctor (JD), was established by the University of Chicago in 1902. However, it took a long time to be accepted, not replacing the Bachelor of Laws (LLB) until the 1960s, by which time the LLB was generally taken as a graduate degree. Notably, the JD and LLB curriculum were identical, with

912-459: A JD, graduates must pass a bar examination to be licensed to practice law. The American Bar Association does not allow an accredited JD degree to be issued in less than two years of law school studies. In the United States, the JD has the academic standing of a professional doctorate (in contrast to a research doctorate ), and is described as a "doctor's degree – professional practice" by

1064-460: A bachelor's degree as a pre-requisite for virtually all students entering law school, it became a bachelor's degree in name only. The didactic approaches that resulted were revolutionary for university education and have slowly been implemented outside the United States, but only recently (since about 1997) and in stages. The degrees which resulted from this new approach, such as the MD and the JD, are just as different from their European counterparts as

1216-481: A bachelor's degree for law could be due to the fact that admittance to most nineteenth-century American law schools required only satisfactory completion of high school. The degree was nevertheless somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any of the cultural or classical studies required of a degree in England, where it was necessary to gain a general BA prior to an LLB or BCL until

1368-450: A bachelor's degree in the U.S. and the U.K. However, elsewhere, e.g. in Finland and many other European countries, a master's degree is required. The time required to complete a research doctorate varies from three years, excluding undergraduate study, to six years or more. Licentiate degrees vary widely in their meaning, and in a few countries are doctoral-level qualifications. Sweden awards

1520-534: A civil servant). In many Central and Eastern Europe countries, the degree gives venia legendi , Latin for "the permission to lecture", or ius docendi , "the right to teach", a specific academic subject at universities for a lifetime. The French academic system used to have a higher doctorate, called the "state doctorate" ( doctorat d'État ), but, in 1984, it was superseded by the habilitation ( Habilitation à diriger des recherches , "habilitation to supervise (doctoral and post-doctoral) research", abbreviated HDR) which

1672-505: A consequence of the need for practical education in law, the apprenticeship program for solicitors emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades. The training of solicitors by a five-year apprenticeship was formally established by the Attorneys and Solicitors Act 1728. William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at

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1824-587: A degree. Because in the United States there were no Inns of Court, and the English academic degrees did not provide the necessary professional training, the models from England were inapplicable, and the degree program took some time to develop. At first the degree took the form of a B.L. (such as at the College of William and Mary), but then Harvard, keen on importing legitimacy through the trappings of Oxford and Cambridge, implemented an LLB degree. The decision to award

1976-529: A doctoral program is available only for holders of a master's degree; there is no honors procedure for recruiting Bachelors. Entrance is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict numerus clausus is applied. Usually, a prospective student discusses their plans with a professor. If the professor agrees to accept the student, the student applies for admission. The professor may recruit students to their group. Formal acceptance does not imply funding. The student must obtain funding either by working in

2128-430: A doctorate in canon law in 1608 have been discredited), Elena Cornaro Piscopia in 1678 at the University of Padua , Laura Bassi in 1732 at Bologna University , Dorothea Erxleben in 1754 at Halle University and María Isidra de Guzmán y de la Cerda in 1785 at Complutense University , Madrid. The use and meaning of the doctorate have changed over time and are subject to regional variations. For instance, until

2280-630: A full dissertation. In the Philippines, the University of the Philippines Open University offers a Doctor of Communication (DComm) professional doctorate. All doctorates in the UK and Ireland are third cycle qualifications in the Bologna Process , comparable to US research doctorates. Although all doctorates are research degrees, professional doctorates normally include taught components, while

2432-504: A graduate JD one. An Australian Juris Doctor consists of three years of full-time study, or the equivalent. The course varies across different universities, though all are obliged to teach the Priestley 11 subjects per the requirements of state admissions boards in Australia. JDs are considered equivalent to LLBs, and graduates must meet the same requirements to qualify, including undergoing

2584-402: A great change in United States university legal education. For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale began to offer a complete "practitioners' course" which lasted two years and included practical courses, such as pleading drafting. United States Supreme Court justice Joseph Story started the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard, when he advocated a more "scientific study" of the law in

2736-408: A higher doctorate a student must have completed a research doctorate at least seven to ten years prior to submitting the research portfolio used to award them a higher doctorate. Doctoral candidates are normally required to have a master's degree in a related field. Exceptions are based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are other common requirements, although

2888-409: A median LSAT score of 167 and median undergraduate GPA of 3.95. The 75th and 25th percentile for these metrics are 168 and 4.00, and 159 and 3.63, respectively. Alabama Law guarantees that every interested student has the opportunity to participate in at least one law clinic before graduating. It is one of the few law schools in the country to make this guarantee. In 2007 Jarvis & Coleman ranked

3040-496: A minimum of six years of university-level study (including any pre-professional bachelor's or associate degree) and meet the academic requirements for professional licensure in the discipline. The definition for a professional doctorate does not include a requirement for either a dissertation or study beyond master's level, in contrast to the definition for research doctorates ("doctor's degree – research/scholarship"). However, individual programs may have different requirements. There

3192-409: A monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles. Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research. When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university. During

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3344-410: A more central role in the preparation of lawyers and consequently improved their coverage of advanced legal topics to become more professionally relevant. Over the same period, American law schools became more scholarly and less professionally oriented, so that in 1996 Langbein could write: "That contrast between English law schools as temples of scholarship and American law schools as training centers for

3496-567: A national law firm and 11.4% found judicial clerkships. Alabama's Law School Transparency under-employment score for 2023 is 4.9%, indicating the percentage of the Class of 2023 who were unemployed, pursuing an additional degree, or working in a non-professional, short-term, or part-time job nine months after graduation. Tuition and fees at the University of Alabama School of Law for the 2018–2019 academic year total $ 23,920 for residents and $ 42,180 for nonresidents. 69.2% of students received discounts during

3648-502: A portfolio of research publications. The habilitation (highest available degree) demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate supportive funding. The habilitation follows the research doctorate, and in Germany, it can be a requirement for appointment as a Privatdozent or professor. Since the Middle Ages ,

3800-556: A practical training. On the Australian Qualifications Framework , the Juris Doctor is classified as a "masters degree (extended)", with an exception having been granted to use the term "doctor" in the title (other such exceptions include Doctor of Medicine, Doctor of Dentistry and Doctor of Veterinary Medicine). It may not be described as a doctoral degree and holders may not use the title "doctor". The JD degree

3952-457: A profession open only to the elite in England, as institutions for training developed in what would become the United States they emerged as quite different from those in England. Initially in the United States the legal professionals were trained and imported from England. A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established first in New York in 1730 — at that time a seven-year clerkship

4104-548: A professional practice focus) include the Doctor of Education (Ed.D. or EdD ), the Doctor of Science (D.Sc. or Sc.D. ), Doctor of Arts (D.A. ), Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D. or S.J.D. ), Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A. ), Doctor of Professional Studies /Professional Doctorate (ProfDoc or DProf), Doctor of Public Health (Dr.P.H. ), Doctor of Social Science (D.S.Sc. or DSocSci ), Doctor of Management (D.M. or D.Mgt.), Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A. or DBA ),

4256-402: A public lecture before a panel of experts (including external members from other universities), and a written exam. In recent years some initiatives as jointly supervised doctorates (e.g. "cotutelles") have become increasingly common in the country, as part of the country's efforts to open its universities to international students. Denmark offers two types of "doctorate"-like degrees: For

4408-469: A research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession . There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines. Many universities also award honorary doctorates to individuals deemed worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or other contributions to

4560-469: A research unit or through private scholarships. Funding is more available for natural and engineering sciences than in letters. Sometimes, normal work and research activity are combined. Prior to introduction of the Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1,800 hours) of formal coursework. The requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision to individual universities, which may delegate

4712-430: A rigorous scientific method, such as that developed by Story and Langdell . In the words of Dorsey Ellis, " Langdell viewed law as a science and the law library as the laboratory, with the cases providing the basis for learning those 'principles or doctrines' of which law, considered as a science, consists. ' " Nonetheless, into the year 1900, most states did not require a university education (although an apprenticeship

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4864-424: A school and which provided a practical legal education, as opposed to the one offered in the universities which offered an education in the theory, history and philosophy of law. The universities assumed that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice, while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education. In part to compete with the small professional law schools, there began

5016-499: A science specialty, one must have a master's degree (M.Sc.) (or two diplomas before the introduction of M.Sc. degree in Egypt) before applying. The M.D. degree involves courses in the field and defending a dissertation. It takes on average three to five years. Many postgraduate medical and surgical specialties students earn a doctorate. After finishing a 6-year medical school and one-year internship (house officer), physicians and surgeons earn

5168-488: A second degree. Two of them conferred a doctorate and the other two a baccalaureate degree. The change from LLB to JD was intended to end "this discrimination, the practice of conferring what is normally a first degree upon persons who have already their primary degree". The JD was proposed as the equivalent of the German J.U.D., to reflect the advanced study required to be an effective lawyer. The University of Chicago Law School

5320-523: A substantial contribution to the field over many years – a standard of professional experience beyond that required for a Doctor of Philosophy . In the United States, the LLD is invariably an honorary degree. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna , was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the glossator school in that city. This served as

5472-507: A thesis in their third year of law school. Because the JD degree was no more advantageous for bar admissions or for employment, the vast majority of Marquette students preferred to seek the LLB degree. As more law students entered law schools with previously awarded bachelor's degree degrees in the 1950s and 1960s, a number of law schools may have introduced the JD to encourage law students to complete their undergraduate degrees. As late as 1961, there were still 15 ABA-accredited law schools in

5624-734: A thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by at least five faculty members, two of whom must be external. After completion, which normally consumes 4 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the main area of specialization, e.g. Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia (Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering) or Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine). The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences)

5776-433: A university degree has been a prerequisite to initiating an articling clerkship. The education in law schools in Canada was similar to that in the United States at the turn of the 20th century, but with a greater concentration on statutory drafting and interpretation, and elements of a liberal education. The bar associations in Canada were influenced by the changes at Harvard, and were sometimes quicker to nationally implement

5928-457: Is a master's degree or equivalent. All universities have the right to award doctorates. The ammattikorkeakoulu institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called "Universities of Applied Sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees. The student must: The way to show that these general requirements have been met is: Entrance to

6080-479: Is a research degree. When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropic efforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa ('for the sake of the honor'), waiving the usual requirements for granting the degree. Some universities do not award honorary degrees, for example, Cornell University , the University of Virginia , and Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In Argentina

6232-438: Is a resemblance between the ijazah and the licentia docendi . However, Toby Huff and others reject Makdisi's theory. Devin J. Stewart notes a difference in the granting authority (individual professor for the ijzazah and a corporate entity in the case of the university doctorate). The doctorate of philosophy developed in Germany in the 17th century (likely c. 1652). The term "philosophy" does not refer here to

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6384-883: Is also a category of "doctor's degree – other" for doctorates that do not fall into either the "professional practice" or "research/scholarship" categories. All of these are considered doctoral degrees. In contrast to the US, many countries reserve the term "doctorate" for research degrees. If, as in Canada and Australia, professional degrees bear the name "Doctor of ...", etc., it is made clear that these are not doctorates. Examples of this include Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD), Doctor of Medicine (MD), Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), and Juris Doctor (JD). Contrariwise, for example, research doctorates like Doctor of Business Administration (DBA), Doctor of Education (EdD) and Doctor of Social Science (DSS) qualify as full academic doctorates in Canada though they normally incorporate aspects of professional practice in addition to

6536-458: Is between US$ 500 and $ 1000. A degree of Doutor usually enables an individual to apply for a junior faculty position equivalent to a US assistant professor . Progression to full professorship, known as Professor Titular requires that the candidate be successful in a competitive public exam and normally takes additional years. In the federal university system, doctors who are admitted as junior faculty members may progress (usually by seniority) to

6688-791: Is conferred after a successful dissertation defence. In 2006, there were approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of which 14% were doctoral degrees. Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for University Evaluation and Accreditation , an agency in Argentina's Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. The Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) categorizes tertiary qualifications into ten levels that are numbered from one to ten in ascending order of complexity and depth. Of these qualification levels, six are for higher education qualifications and are numbered from five to ten. Doctoral degrees occupy

6840-793: Is elective with various concentrations such as commercial and corporate law, taxation, international law, natural resources law, real estate transactions, employment law, criminal law and Aboriginal law. After graduation from an accredited law school, each province's or territory's law society requires completion of a bar admission course or examination and a period of supervised articling prior to independent practice. United States jurisdictions other than New York and Massachusetts do not recognize Canadian Juris Doctor degrees automatically. Likewise, United States JD graduates are not automatically recognized in Canadian jurisdictions such as Ontario. To prepare graduates to practise in jurisdictions on both sides of

6992-668: Is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.) All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are tuition-free (mandated by the Brazilian constitution ). Some graduate students are additionally supported by institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq ( Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico ) and CAPES ( Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento do Pessoal de Ensino Superior ). Personal scholarships are provided by

7144-423: Is required to have a master's degree, but not necessarily a ph.d. The ph.d. was introduced as a separate title from the higher doctorate in 1992 as part of the transition to a new degree structure, since the changes in the degree system would otherwise leave a significant amount of academics without immediately recognizable qualifications in international settings. The original vision was purported to be to phase out

7296-484: Is the dominant common-law law degree in Canada, having replaced many of the nation's former LLB programs. Unlike other jurisdictions, the Canadian LLB was historically typically second-entry undergraduate degree that required the prior completion of another undergraduate degree. The University of Toronto became the first law school to rename its law degree in 2001. As with the second-entry LLB, in order to be admitted to

7448-459: Is the prerequisite to supervise PhDs and to apply to Full Professorships. In many countries of the previous Soviet Union ( USSR ), for example the Russian Federation or Ukraine there is the higher doctorate (above the title of "Candidate of Sciences"/PhD) under the title " Doctor of Sciences ". While this section has focused on earned qualifications conferred in virtue of published work or

7600-489: Is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (called viva (voce) in the UK and India) by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally (ranging from corrections in grammar to additional research), or denies the degree. Candidates may also be required to complete graduate-level courses in their field and study research methodology. Criteria for admission to doctoral programs vary. Students may be admitted with

7752-546: The Alabama Law Review (ALR) 36th "on the basis of the prominence of their lead article authors." This represents an incredible 63 position improvement from the rankings of ten years prior. For 2015–2016, ExpressO, UC Berkeley's manuscript submission service, ranked the ALR at 10th in terms of "number of manuscripts received." In 2015 Washington and Lee's methods rank ALR at 46th in both the number of citations from other journals and

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7904-449: The Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D., or D.S.Th.) are research doctorates in theology. Criteria for research doctorates vary but typically require completion of a substantial body of original research, which may be presented as a single thesis or dissertation , or as a portfolio of shorter project reports ( thesis by publication ). The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners. It

8056-507: The Inns of Court . The 1728 act was amended in 1821 to reduce the period of the required apprenticeship to three years for graduates in either law or arts from Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin, as "the admission of such graduates should be facilitated, in consideration of the learning and abilities requisite for taking such degree". This was extended in 1837 to cover the newly established universities of Durham and London, and again in 1851 to include

8208-728: The Manderson Graduate School of Business , the law school also offers a four-year joint J.D./M.B.A. program. Students may also pursue a number of graduate degrees through established dual enrollment programs for M.A. or Ph.D. in Political Science, M.P.A., Ph.D. in Economics, or LL.M. in Taxation. Certificates in Public Interest Law, Governmental Affairs, and International and Comparative Law are also available. Admissions have been increasingly selective. The class of 2026 has

8360-575: The Socratic method (a method of examining students on the reasoning of the court in the cases studied). Therefore, a graduate, high-level law degree was proposed: the Juris Doctor, implementing the case and Socratic methods as its didactic approach. According to professor J. H. Beale , an 1882 Harvard Law graduate, one of the main arguments for the change was uniformity. Harvard's four professional schools – theology, law, medicine, and arts and sciences – were all graduate schools, and their degrees were therefore

8512-454: The United States , it is the only qualifying law degree. Other jurisdictions, such as Australia , Canada , and Hong Kong , offer both the postgraduate JD degree as well as the undergraduate LL.B. , BCL , or other qualifying law degree depending on the requirements of the jurisdiction where the person will practice law. Originating in the United States in the late 19th century, the JD is

8664-428: The auditorium (ex auditorio) . For the higher doctorate, the candidate (referred to as præses ) is required to submit a thesis of major scientific significance, and to proceed to defend it orally against two official opponents, as well as against any and all opponents from the auditorium ( ex auditorio ) – no matter how long the proceedings take. The official opponents are required to be full professors. The candidate

8816-491: The common law that applied in most jurisdictions. Professional training for practicing common law in England was undertaken at the Inns of Court , but over time the training functions of the Inns lessened considerably and apprenticeships with individual practitioners arose as the prominent medium of preparation. However, because of the lack of standardization of study, and of objective standards for appraisal of these apprenticeships,

8968-648: The "faculty of philosophy". The Doctorate of Philosophy adheres to this historic convention, even though most degrees are not for the study of philosophy. Chris Park explains that it was not until formal education and degree programs were standardized in the early 19th century that the Doctorate of Philosophy was reintroduced in Germany as a research degree, abbreviated as Dr. phil. (similar to Ph.D. in Anglo-American countries). Germany, however, differentiated then in more detail between doctorates in philosophy and doctorates in

9120-496: The 19th century "when holding a doctorate seemed no longer sufficient to guarantee a proficient transfer of knowledge to the next generation". In many federal states of Germany, the habilitation results in an award of a formal "Dr. habil." degree or the holder of the degree may add "habil." to their research doctorate such as "Dr. phil. habil." or "Dr. rer. nat. habil." In some European universities, especially in German -speaking countries,

9272-432: The 19th century. At the time he was a lecturer at Harvard. Therefore, at Harvard the education was much of a trade school type of approach to legal education, contrary to the more liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson at William and Mary. Nonetheless, there continued to be debate among educators over whether legal education should be more vocational, as at the private law schools, or through

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9424-421: The 2017–2018 school year; the remaining 30.8% paid full price. Law School Transparency estimated debt-financed cost of attendance for three years at full price to be $ 157,785 for residents and $ 231,042 for nonresidents. Juris Doctor A Juris Doctor , Doctor of Jurisprudence , or Doctor of Law ( JD ) is a graduate-entry professional degree that primarily prepares individuals to practice law . In

9576-563: The BA was not required (although those not holding a BA had to produce a certificate to prove they had not only been in residence but had actually attended lectures for at least three terms). These degrees specialized in Roman civil law rather than in English common law, the latter being the domain of the Inns of Court, and thus they were more theoretical than practically useful. Cambridge reestablished its LLB degree in 1858 as an undergraduate course alongside

9728-569: The BA, and the London LLB, which had previously required a minimum of one year after the BA, become an undergraduate degree in 1866. The older nomenclature continues to be used for the BCL at Oxford today, which is a master's level program, while Cambridge moved its LLB back to being a postgraduate degree in 1922 but only renamed it as the LLM in 1982. Between the 1960s and the 1990s, law schools in England took on

9880-460: The Bar unanimously adopted a resolution recommending to all approved law schools that they give favorable consideration to the conferring of the JD degree as the first professional degree, in 1962 and 1963. By the 1960s, most law students were college graduates having previously obtained a bachelor's degree, and by the end of that decade, almost all were required to be. Student and alumni support were key in

10032-582: The Bible . The right to grant a licentia docendi (i.e. the doctorate) was originally reserved to the Catholic Church , which required the applicant to pass a test, take an oath of allegiance , and pay a fee. The Third Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed access—at that time essentially free of charge—to all able applicants. Applicants were tested for aptitude. This right remained a bone of contention between

10184-449: The English universities. The nature of the JD can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes and not meant to prepare one to practice law. The universities only taught civil and canon law (used in a very few jurisdictions, such as the courts of admiralty and church courts) but not

10336-463: The Inns of Court was a mix of moot court -like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation. By the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university, akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge , though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades , the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and

10488-400: The Inns of Court. Even though it took nearly 150 years since common law education began with Blackstone at Oxford for university education to be part of legal training in England and Wales, the LLB eventually became the degree usually taken before becoming a lawyer. In England and Wales the LLB is an undergraduate scholarly program and although it (assuming it is a qualifying law degree) fulfills

10640-468: The JD and once again granting only the LLB, with only law schools in Illinois holding out. This changed in the 1960s, by which time almost all law school entrants were graduates. The JD was reintroduced in 1962 and by 1971 had replaced the LLB, with many schools offering a JD as a replacement to their LLB alumni. Canadian and Australian universities have had graduate-entry law programs that are very similar to

10792-400: The JD is a doctoral degree in the US, lawyers usually use the suffix " Esq. " as opposed to the prefix "Dr.", and that only in a professional context, when needed to alert others that they are a biased party – acting as an agent for their client. An initial attempt to rename the LLB to the JD in the US in the early 20th century started with a petition at Harvard in 1902. This was rejected, but

10944-455: The JD programs in the United States, but typically called the LLB. Some students at these universities advocated for the renaming of the graduate-entry LLB to the JD to recognise the graduate characteristics of the program and to obtain a so-called doctoral-level qualification. The traditional law degree in Australia is the undergraduate Bachelor of Laws ( LLB ). Beginning in the 2010s, many Australian universities now offer JD programs, including

11096-453: The JD which have been implemented around the world. As stated by Hall and Langdell, who were involved in the creation of the JD, the JD is a professional degree like the MD , intended to prepare practitioners through a scientific approach of analysing and teaching the law through logic and adversarial analysis (such as the casebook and Socratic methods). This system of curriculum has existed in

11248-451: The LLB although in some, including Oxford and Cambridge, it is the BA in law. Both of these can be taken with "senior status" in two years by those already holding an undergraduate degree in another discipline. A few universities offer "exempting" degrees, usually integrated master's degrees denominated Master in Law (MLaw), that combine the qualifying law degree with the legal practice course or

11400-418: The LLB programs in the early 1900s at Stanford University and Yale continued to include "cultural study", which included courses in languages, mathematics and economics. An LLB, or a Bachelor of Laws, recognized that a prior bachelor's degree was not required to earn an LLB. In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing

11552-592: The LLB-to-JD change, and even the most prominent schools were convinced to make the change: Columbia and Harvard in 1969, and Yale (last) in 1971. Nonetheless, the LLB at Yale retained the didactical changes of the "practitioners' courses" of 1826, and was very different from the LLB in common law countries, other than Canada. Following standard modern academic practice, Harvard Law School refers to its Master of Laws and Doctor of Juridical Science degrees as its graduate level law degrees. Similarly, Columbia refers to

11704-472: The LLM and the JSD as its graduate program. Yale Law School lists its LLM, MSL, JSD, and Ph.D. as constituting graduate programs. A distinction thus remains between professional and graduate law degrees at some universities in the United States. The English legal system is the root of the systems of other common-law countries, such as the United States. Originally, common lawyers in England were trained exclusively in

11856-484: The Latin for "Doctor of Jurisprudence" – Jurisprudentiae Doctor – literally means "teacher of legal knowledge". The JD is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor (LLD). In institutions where the latter can be earned, e.g., Cambridge University (where it is titled "Doctor of Law", though still retaining the abbreviation LLD) and many other British institutions, it is a higher research doctorate, representing

12008-523: The M.B. B.Ch. degree, which is equivalent to a US MD degree. They can then apply to earn a master's degree or a speciality diploma, then an MD degree in a specialty. The Egyptian M.D. degree is written using the name of one's specialty. For example, M.D. (Geriatrics) means a doctorate in Geriatrics , which is equivalent to a Ph.D. in Geriatrics. The Finnish requirement for the entrance into doctoral studies

12160-476: The Midwest. After the 1930s, the LLB and the JD degrees co‑existed in some American law schools. Some law schools, especially in Illinois and the Midwest, awarded both (like Marquette University, beginning in 1926), conferring JD degrees only to those with a bachelor's degree (as opposed to two or three years of college before law school), and those who met a higher academic standard in undergraduate studies, finishing

12312-645: The Swedish/Finnish licentiate degree). While other licences (such as the Licence in Canon Law) are at the level of master's degrees. A higher tier of research doctorates may be awarded based on a formally submitted portfolio of published research of an exceptionally high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science (DSc or ScD), Doctor of Divinity (DD), Doctor of Letters (DLitt or LittD), Doctor of Law or Laws (LLD), and Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) degrees found in

12464-884: The UK Doctor of Management (DMan), various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng., D.E.Sc. or D.E.S., also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK Engineering Doctorate (EngD), the German engineering doctorate Doktoringenieur ( Dr.-Ing. ) the German natural science doctorate Doctor rerum naturalium ( Dr. rer. nat. ) and the economics and social science doctorate Doctor rerum politicarum ( Dr. rer. pol. ). The UK Doctor of Medicine (MD or MD (Res)) and Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) are research doctorates. The Doctor of Theology (Th.D., D.Th. or ThD ), Doctor of Practical Theology (DPT) and

12616-606: The UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries, and the traditional doctorates in Scandinavia like the Doctor Medicinae (Dr. Med.). The habilitation teaching qualification ( facultas docendi or "faculty to teach") under a university procedure with a thesis and an exam is commonly regarded as belonging to this category in Germany , Austria , France , Liechtenstein , Switzerland , Poland , etc. The degree developed in Germany in

12768-517: The United Kingdom, the older-style doctorates take much longer to complete since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are less common than the PhD in some countries and are often awarded honoris causa . The habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU. It involves either a long new thesis (a second book) or

12920-477: The United States Department of Education's National Center for Education Statistics . In Australia, South Korea, and Hong Kong, it has the academic standing of a master's degree , while in Canada, it is considered a second-entry bachelor's degree . To be fully authorized to practice law in the courts of a given state in the United States, the majority of individuals holding a JD degree must pass

13072-411: The United States during a movement to improve training of the professions. Prior to the origination of the JD, law students began law school either with only a high school diploma, or less than the amount of undergraduate study required to earn a bachelor's degree. The LLB persisted through the middle of the 20th century, which by then turned into a postgraduate degree requiring the previous completion of

13224-426: The United States for over 100 years. The JD program generally requires a bachelor's degree for entry, though this requirement is sometimes waived. As a study of the substantive law and its professional applications, the JD curriculum has not changed substantially since its creation. As a professional degree, JD programs typically allow practitioners. It requires at least three academic years of full-time study. While

13376-491: The United States which awarded both LLB and JD degrees. Thirteen of the 15 were located in the Midwest, which may indicate regional variations in the United States. It was only after 1962 that a new push — this time begun at less-prominent law schools — successfully led to the universal adoption of the JD as the first law degree. The turning point appears to have occurred when the ABA Section of Legal Education and Admissions to

13528-441: The United States, William Livingston , in 1745 in a New York newspaper that the clerkship program was severely flawed, and that most mentors There were some few mentors that were dedicated to the service, and because of their rarity, they became so sought-after that the first law schools evolved from the offices of some of these attorneys, who took on many clerks and began to spend more time training than practicing law. In time,

13680-413: The United States, such as that of the University of Maryland established in 1812, included much theoretical and philosophical study, including works such as the Bible, Cicero , Seneca , Aristotle, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and Grotius . It has been said that the early university law schools of the early 19th century seemed to be preparing students for careers as statesmen rather than as lawyers. At

13832-401: The United States. The historian Robert Stevens wrote that "it was Langdell's goal to turn the legal profession into a university educated one — and not at the undergraduate level, but through a three-year post baccalaureate degree." This graduate level study would allow the intensive legal training that Langdell had developed, known as the case method (a method of studying landmark cases) and

13984-400: The University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature. Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure provided by apprenticeship and

14136-536: The academic requirements for becoming a lawyer, further vocational and professional training as either a barrister (the Bar Professional Training Course followed by pupillage ) or as a solicitor (the Legal Practice Course followed by a " period of recognised training " ) is required before becoming licensed in that jurisdiction. The qualifying law degree in most English universities is

14288-438: The apprenticeship program was not considered sufficient to produce lawyers fully capable of serving their clients' needs. The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks, and while they were well trained in the day-to-day operations of a law office, they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners. The establishment of formal faculties of law in United States universities did not occur until

14440-459: The apprenticeship term for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree . University degrees, including doctorates, were originally restricted to men. The first women to be granted doctorates were Juliana Morell in 1608 at Lyons or maybe Avignon (she "defended theses" in 1606 or 1607, although claims that she received

14592-420: The authority to faculties or individual professors. In Engineering and Science, required coursework varies between 40 and 70 ECTS . The duration of graduate studies varies. It is possible to graduate three years after the master's degree, while much longer periods are not uncommon. The study ends with a dissertation, which must present substantial new scientific/scholarly knowledge. The dissertation can either be

14744-456: The bar professional training course in a four-year, undergraduate-entry program. Legal education in Canada has unique variations from other Commonwealth countries. Even though the legal system of Canada is mostly a transplant of the English system (Quebec excepted), the Canadian system is unique in that there are no Inns of Court, the practical training occurs in the office of a barrister and solicitor with law society membership, and, since 1889,

14896-448: The basis of an original and significant contribution to professional practice. Higher doctorates are typically titled similarly to professional doctorates and are awarded based on a submitted portfolio of research that follows a consistent theme and is internationally recognized as an original and substantive contribution to knowledge beyond that required for the awarding of a research doctorate. Typically, to be eligible to be awarded

15048-406: The border, some pairs of law schools have developed joint Canadian-American JD programs. As of 2018, these include a three-year program conducted concurrently at the University of Windsor and the University of Detroit Mercy, as well as a four-year program with the University of Ottawa and either Michigan State University or American University in which students spend two years studying on each side of

15200-427: The border. Previously, New York University (NYU) Law School and Osgoode Hall Law School offered a similar program, but this has since been terminated. Two notable exceptions are Université de Montréal and Université de Sherbrooke , which both offer a one-year JD program aimed at Quebec civil law graduates in order to practice law either elsewhere in Canada or in the state of New York. York University offered

15352-469: The century, and even then the bar did not consider a university degree in admission decisions. Until the mid nineteenth century, most law degrees in England (the BCL at Oxford and Durham, and the LLB at London) were postgraduate degrees, taken after an initial degree in arts. The Cambridge degree, variously referred to as a BCL, BL or LLB, was an exception: it took six years from matriculation to complete, but only three of these had to be in residence, and

15504-413: The changes proposed in the United States, such as requiring previous college education before studying law. Legal education is rooted in the history and structure of the legal system of the jurisdiction where the education is given; therefore, law degrees are vastly different from country to country, making comparisons among degrees problematic. This has proven true in the context of the various forms of

15656-462: The church authorities and the universities, slowly distancing themselves from the Church. In 1213 the right was granted by the pope to the University of Paris , where it became a universal license to teach ( licentia ubique docendi ). However, while the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree ( baccalaureus ), the latter was ultimately reduced to an intermediate step to

15808-526: The combined score. These show an improvement of 10 and 26 positions, respectively, over the preceding 5 years. Approximately 40% of students graduate with journal experience. This is a slightly lower percentage than many of Alabama's peer schools, but nonetheless above the national average. According to Alabama's official 2023 ABA-required disclosures, 89.4% of the Class of 2023 obtained full-time, long-term, bar passage required employment within nine months after graduation. 26% of 2023 graduates were employed by

15960-536: The country's best ranked universities (e.g. the University of New South Wales , the University of Sydney , the Australian National University , the University of Melbourne , Monash University , and Western Sydney University ). Generally, universities that offer the JD also offer the LLB, although at some universities, only the graduate-entry JD is offered. The University of Melbourne, for example, has phased out its undergraduate LLB program for

16112-440: The country, professional doctorates may also be research degrees at the same level as PhDs . The relationship between research and practice is considered important and professional degrees with little or no research content are typically aimed at professional performance. Many professional doctorates are named "Doctor of [subject name] and abbreviated using the form "D[subject abbreviation]" or "[subject abbreviation]D", or may use

16264-511: The degree being renamed as a doctorate, and it (like the MD) was not equivalent to the PhD, raising criticism that it was "not a 'true Doctorate ' ". When professional doctorates were established in the UK in the late 1980s and early 1990s, they did not follow the US model. Still, they were set up as research degrees at the same level as PhDs but with some taught components and a professional focus for research work. Now usually called higher doctorates in

16416-412: The degree is insufficient to have teaching duties without professor supervision (or teaching and supervising PhD students independently) without an additional teaching title such as Privatdozent . In Austria, the habilitation bestows the graduate with the facultas docendi , venia legendi. Since 2004, the honorary title of "Privatdozent" (before this, completing the habilitation resulted in appointment as

16568-448: The degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence (D.Jur.) as a research degree until 2002, when the name of the program was changed to Ph.D. in law. Professional doctorate A doctorate (from Latin doctor , meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach"). In most countries,

16720-464: The degree. Harvard, for example, refused to adopt the JD degree, even though it restricted admission to students with college degrees in 1909. Indeed, pressure from eastern law schools led almost every law school (except at the University of Chicago and other law schools in Illinois ) to abandon the JD and re‑adopt the LLB as the first law degree by the 1930s. By 1962, the JD degree was rarely seen outside

16872-530: The demand for lawyers grew. Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of academic study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law (the two "laws" in the original Bachelor of Laws, which thus became the Bachelor of Civil Law when the study of canon law was barred after the Reformation) and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. As

17024-426: The doctorate ( doctorado ) is the highest academic degree. The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director. It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution. The degree

17176-478: The doctorate's importance. Today, a research doctorate (PhD) or its equivalent (as defined in the US by the NSF ) is generally a prerequisite for an academic career. However, many recipients do not work in academia. Professional doctorates developed in the United States from the 19th century onward. The first professional doctorate offered in the United States was the MD at Kings College (now Columbia University ) after

17328-399: The early 20th century, few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders . After that time, the German practice of requiring lecturers to have completed a research doctorate spread. Universities' shift to research-oriented education (based upon the scientific method, inquiry, and observation) increased

17480-551: The educational approaches differ. Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century, the first being the Doctor of Medicine in 1807, but at the time, the legal system in the United States was still in development as the educational institutions were developing, and the status of the legal profession was at that time still ambiguous and so the professional law degree took more time to develop. Even when some universities offered training in law, they did not offer

17632-456: The equivalent, a higher doctorate may also be presented on an honorary basis by a university — at its own initiative or after a nomination — in recognition of public prestige, institutional service, philanthropy, or professional achievement. In a formal listing of qualifications, and often in other contexts, an honorary higher doctorate will be identified using language like " DCL , honoris causa ", "Hon LLD ", or " LittD h.c. ". Depending on

17784-401: The field or academic discipline of philosophy ; it is used in a broader sense under its original Greek meaning of "love of wisdom". In most of Europe , all fields ( history , philosophy, social sciences , mathematics , and natural philosophy / natural sciences ) were traditionally known as philosophy, and in Germany and elsewhere in Europe the basic faculty of liberal arts was known as

17936-453: The higher doctorate in favor of the ph.d. (or merge the two), but so far, there are no signs of this happening. Many Danish academics with permanent positions wrote ph.d. dissertations in the 90s when the system was new, since at that time, a ph.d. degree or equivalent qualifications began to be required for certain academic positions in Denmark . Until the late 20th century, the higher doctorate

18088-474: The highest of these levels: level ten. All doctoral degrees involve research and this is a defining characteristic of them. There are three categories of doctoral degrees recognized by the AQF: research doctorates, professional doctorates and higher doctorates. Research doctorates and professional doctorates are both completed as part of a programme of study and supervised research. Both have entry requirements of

18240-420: The idea took hold at the new law school established at the University of Chicago and other universities. By 1925, 80% of US law schools awarded the JD to students who had entered the program with an undergraduate degree, while granting undergraduate entrants the LLB. The change was initially rejected by the leading law schools of the time Harvard, Yale and Columbia. By the late 1920s, schools were moving away from

18392-516: The latter part of the 18th century. With the beginning of the American Revolution, the supply of lawyers from Britain ended. The first law degree granted by a United States university was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William and Mary , which was abbreviated L.B.; Harvard was the first university to use the LLB abbreviation in the United States. The first university law programs in

18544-426: The law individually as expected. They were often employed to tedious tasks, such as making handwritten copies of documents. Finding sufficient legal texts was also a seriously debilitating issue, and there was no standardization in the books assigned to the clerk trainees because they were assigned by their mentor, whose opinion of the law may have differed greatly from his peers. It was said by one famous attorney in

18696-470: The licentiate degree as a two-year qualification at the doctoral level and the doctoral degree (PhD) as a four-year qualification. Sweden originally abolished the Licentiate in 1969 but reintroduced it in response to demands from business. Finland also has a two-year doctoral level licentiate degree, similar to Sweden's. Outside of Scandinavia, the licentiate is usually a lower-level qualification. In Belgium,

18848-540: The licentiate was the basic university degree prior to the Bologna Process and was equivalent to a bachelor's degree. In France and other countries, it is the bachelor's-level qualification in the Bologna process. In the Pontifical system, the Licentiate in Sacred Theology (STL) is equivalent to an advanced master's degree, or the post-master's coursework required in preparation for a doctorate (i.e. similar in level to

19000-421: The litigation of patent-related matters in state and federal courts. In the United States , the professional doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English as Juris Doctor (sometimes shown on Latin diplomas in the accusative form Juris Doctorem ) and at some law schools Doctor of Law (JD), or Doctor of Jurisprudence (also abbreviated JD). " Juris Doctor " literally means "teacher of law", while

19152-478: The master's degree ( magister ) and doctorate, both of which now became the accepted teaching qualifications. According to Keith Allan Noble (1994), the first doctoral degree was awarded in medieval Paris around 1150 by the University of Paris. George Makdisi theorizes that the ijazah issued in early Islamic madrasahs was the origin of the doctorate later issued in medieval European universities . Alfred Guillaume and Syed Farid al-Attas agree that there

19304-425: The medical school's founding in 1767. However, this was not a professional doctorate in the modern American sense. It was awarded for further study after the qualifying Bachelor of Medicine (MB) rather than a qualifying degree. The MD became the standard first degree in medicine in the US during the 19th century, but as a three-year undergraduate degree. It did not become established as a graduate degree until 1930. As

19456-399: The mentoring lawyer was expected to carefully select materials for study and guide the clerk in his study of the law and ensure that it was being absorbed. The student was supposed to compile his notes of his reading of the law into a " commonplace book ", which he would try to memorize. Although those were the ideals, in reality the clerks were often overworked and rarely were able to study

19608-546: The model for other law schools of the Middle Ages , and other early universities such as the University of Padua . The first academic degrees may have been doctorates in civil law ( doctores legum ) followed by canon law ( doctores decretorum ); these were not professional degrees but rather indicated that their holders had been approved to teach at the universities. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees (bachelor's and licences) were introduced in Paris and then in

19760-466: The more generic titles "Professional Doctorate", abbreviated "ProfDoc" or "DProf", " Doctor of Professional Studies " (DPS) or "Doctor of Professional Practice" (DPP). In the US, professional doctorates (formally "doctor's degree – professional practice" in government classifications) are defined by the US Department of Education 's National Center for Educational Statistics as degrees that require

19912-510: The most common law degree in the country. The degree generally requires three years of full-time study to complete and is conferred upon students who have successfully completed coursework and practical training in legal studies. The JD curriculum typically includes fundamental legal subjects such as constitutional law, civil procedure, criminal law, contracts, property, and torts, along with opportunities for specialization in areas like international law, corporate law, or public policy. Upon receiving

20064-475: The name PhD/DPhil is normally used for doctorates purely by thesis. Professional, practitioner, or practice-based doctorates such as the DClinPsy, MD, DHSc, EdD, DBA, EngD and DAg are full academic doctorates. They are at the same level as the PhD in the national qualifications frameworks; they are not first professional degrees but are "often post-experience qualifications" in which practice is considered important in

20216-423: The natural sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. nat. and also doctorates in the social/political sciences, abbreviated as Dr. rer. pol., similar to the other traditional doctorates in medicine (Dr. med.) and law (Dr. jur.). University doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild . The traditional term of study before new teachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, matching

20368-515: The new Queen's University of Ireland . The Inns of Court continued but became less effective, and admission to the bar still did not require any significant educational activity or examination. In 1846, Parliament examined the education and training of prospective barristers and found the system to be inferior to that of Europe and the United States, as Britain did not regulate the admission of barristers. Therefore, formal schools of law were called for but were not finally established until later in

20520-559: The nineteenth century. Thus, even though the name of the English LLB degree was implemented at Harvard, the program in the United States was nonetheless intended as a first degree which, unlike the English B.A., gave practical or professional training in law. In the mid-19th century there was much concern about the quality of legal education in the United States. C.C. Langdell served as dean of Harvard Law School from 1870 to 1895, and dedicated his life to reforming legal education in

20672-413: The number and types of doctorates awarded by universities have proliferated throughout the world. Practice varies from one country to another. While a doctorate usually entitles a person to be addressed as "doctor", the use of the title varies widely depending on the type and the associated occupation. Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of publishable academic research, at least in principle, in

20824-437: The ph.d. degree, the candidates (ph.d. students or fellows) – who are required to have a master's degree – enroll at a ph.d. school at a university and participate in a research training program, at the end of which they each submit a thesis and defend it orally at a formal disputation . In the disputation, the candidates defend their theses against three official opponents, and may take opponents or questions from those present in

20976-427: The pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications. After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis. When granting this permission, the faculty names the opponent for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert, with at least a doctorate. In all Finnish universities, long tradition requires that

21128-550: The profession no longer bears the remotest relation to reality". Initially there was much resistance to lawyers in colonial North America because of the role they had played in hierarchical England, but slowly the colonial governments started using the services of professionals trained in the Inns of Court in London, and by the end of the American Revolution there was a functional bar in each state. Due to an initial distrust of

21280-403: The rank of associate professor, then become eligible to take the competitive exam for vacant full professorships. In São Paulo state universities, associate professorships and subsequent eligibility to apply for a full professorship are conditioned on the qualification of Livre-docente and requires, in addition to a doctorate, a second thesis or cumulative portfolio of peer-reviewed publications,

21432-466: The requirements regarding proficiency commonly are not strict. The admissions process varies by institution. Some require candidates to take tests while others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview only. In both instances however, a faculty member must agree prior to admission to supervise the applicant. Requirements usually include satisfactory performance in advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam and submitting

21584-529: The research context. In 2009 there were 308 professional doctorate programs in the UK, up from 109 in 1998, with the most popular being the EdD (38 institutions), DBA (33), EngD/DEng (22), MD/DM (21), and DClinPsy/DClinPsych/ClinPsyD (17). Similarly, in Australia, the term "professional doctorate" is sometimes applied to the Scientiae Juridicae Doctor (SJD), which, like the UK professional doctorates,

21736-488: The role of universities became subsequently important for the education of lawyers in the English-speaking world. In England in 1292 when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system. The original method of education at

21888-533: The standard qualifying degree in medicine, the MD gave that profession the ability (through the American Medical Association , established in 1847 for this purpose) to set and raise standards for entry into professional practice. In the shape of the German-style PhD, the modern research degree was first awarded in the US in 1861, at Yale University . This differed from the MD in that the latter

22040-484: The student having a supervisor that has agreed to supervise their research, along with the student possessing an honours degree with upper second-class honours or better or a master's degree with a substantial research component. Research doctorates are typically titled Doctor of Philosophy and they are awarded on the basis of an original and significant contribution to knowledge. Professional doctorates are typically titled Doctor of (field of study) and they are awarded on

22192-467: The university or society. The term doctor derives from Latin, meaning "teacher" or "instructor". The doctorate (Latin: doctoratus ) appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach Latin ( licentia docendi ) at a university . Its roots can be traced to the early church in which the term doctor referred to the Apostles , church fathers , and other Christian authorities who taught and interpreted

22344-460: The various FAP's ( Fundações de Amparo à Pesquisa ) at the state level, especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo , FAPERJ in the state of Rio de Janeiro and FAPEMIG in the state of Minas Gerais . Competition for graduate financial aid is intense and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil

22496-473: Was a condition for attaining full professorship; it is no longer required per se for any positions, but is considered amply equivalent to the ph.d. when applying for academic positions. In Egypt, the highest degree doctorate is awarded by Al-Azhar University est. 970, which grants ( العالمية Ālimiyya\ Habilitation ). The Medical doctorate (abbreviated as M.D.) is equivalent to the Ph.D. degree. To earn an M.D. in

22648-493: Was a vocational " professional degree " that trained students to apply or practice knowledge rather than generate it, similar to other students in vocational schools or institutes. In the UK, research doctorates initially took higher doctorates in Science and Letters, first introduced at Durham University in 1882. The PhD spread to the UK from the US via Canada and was instituted at all British universities from 1917. The first (titled

22800-408: Was often required) and most practitioners had not attended any law school or college. Therefore, the modern legal education system in the United States is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practical skill, implementing elements such as clinical training, which has become an essential part of legal education in the United States and in the JD program of study. The JD originated in

22952-417: Was required, and in 1756 a four-year college degree was required in addition to five years of clerking and an examination. Later the requirements were reduced to require only two years of college education. But a system like the Inns did not develop, and a college education was not required in England until the 19th century, so this system was unique. The clerkship program required much individual study and

23104-492: Was the first to offer the JD in 1902, when it was just one of five law schools that demanded a college degree from its applicants. While approval was still pending at Harvard, the degree was introduced at many other law schools, including at the law schools at NYU, Berkeley, Michigan, and Stanford. Because of tradition, and concerns about less prominent universities implementing a JD program, prominent eastern law schools like those of Harvard, Yale, and Columbia refused to implement

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