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98-402: Akara is made from peeled beans (black-eyed peas), washed and ground with pepper, and other preferred seasonings, then beaten to aerate them, and deep-fried in small balls. Brazilian acarajé is made from raw and milled cowpeas that are seasoned with salt, pepper and chopped onions molded into the shape of a large scone and deep-fried in dendê with a wok-like pan in front of the customers. It

196-456: A pest deterrent . CpTI is the only gene obtained outside of B. thuringiensis that has been inserted into a commercially available genetically modified crop. Besides biotic stresses, cowpea also faces various challenges in different parts of the world such as drought, heat, and cold. Drought lowers the growth rate and development, ultimately reducing yield, although cowpea is considered more drought tolerant than most other crops. Drought at

294-472: A daily basis. Insect infestation is a major constraint to the production of cowpea, sometimes causing over 90% loss in yield. The legume pod borer Maruca vitrata is the main preharvest pest of the cowpea and the cowpea weevil Callosobruchus maculatus the main postharvest pest. Vigna unguiculata is a member of the Vigna (peas and beans) genus. Unguiculata is Latin for "with a small claw", which reflects

392-702: A depth of 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) after eight weeks. The size and shape of the leaves vary greatly, making this an important feature for classifying and distinguishing cowpea varieties. Another distinguishing feature of cowpeas is the long 20–50 cm (8–20 in) peduncles , which hold the flowers and seed pods. One peduncle can support four or more seed pods. Flower colour varies through different shades of purple, pink, yellow, and white and blue. Seeds and seed pods from wild cowpeas are very small, while cultivated varieties can have pods between 10 and 110 cm (4 and 43 in) long. A pod can contain six to 13 seeds that are usually kidney-shaped, although

490-573: A key role in subsistence farming and livestock fodder, the cowpea is also seen as a major cash crop by Central and West African farmers, with an estimated 200 million people consuming cowpea on a daily basis. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations , as of 2012, the average cowpea yield in Western Africa was an estimated 483 kilograms per hectare (431 lb/acre), which

588-426: A major food crop. A seed can consist of 25% protein and has very low fat content. Cowpea starch is digested more slowly than the starch from cereals, which is more beneficial to human health. The grain is a rich source of folic acid , an important vitamin that helps prevent neural tube defects in unborn babies. The cowpea has often been referred to as "poor man's meat" due to the high levels of protein found in

686-512: A pejorative used to refer to the bureaucratic elite of the Federal District. Only when the city lost its status as Federal District (to Brasília ) and became the State of Guanabara in 1960 did carioca become an official demonym along with guanabarino . In 1975, Guanabara State was incorporated into Rio de Janeiro State, becoming the present City of Rio de Janeiro. Carioca became the demonym of

784-457: A ritual prohibition of the use of palm oil. This variety is found in the states of Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. Acarajé de Xangô (Àkàrà tí Ṣangó) is a variety of acarajé offered to the orixá Xangô, known as the òriṣà Ṣangó in the Yoruba culture. It is made of the same ingredients as the common form but greatly elongated. This variety is found on the ritual platter of amalá offered to Xangô. This variety

882-586: A sexually mature adult within the seed. An individual bruchid can lay 20–40 eggs, and in optimal conditions, each egg can develop into a reproductively active adult in 3 weeks. The most common methods of protection involve the use of insecticides, the main pesticides used being carbamates , synthetic pyrethroids , and organophosphates . Cowpea is susceptible to nematode , fungal, bacterial, and virus diseases, which can result in substantial loss in yield. Common diseases include blights , root rot, wilt, powdery mildew , root knot, rust and leaf spot . The plant

980-425: A significant share of industry and little influence on the agricultural sector, which represents only 0.4% of the product gross domestic state. In the past, sugar cane and later, coffee had a considerable impact on the economy of Rio de Janeiro. The area around Campos dos Goytacazes was most affected by the fall of sugar cane: at the beginning of the 20th century, Campos had 27 mills in operation and, throughout

1078-618: A year. According to the IBGE of 2022, there were 16,055,174 people residing in the state. The population density was 367 inhabitants per square kilometre (950/sq mi). Urbanization : 96.9% (2004); Population growth : 1.3% (1991–2000). The last PNAD (National Household Survey) census revealed the following numbers: 6,739,901 White people (42.0%), 6,682,740 Pardo ( Multiracial ) people (41.6%), 2,594,253 Black people (16.2%), 21,837 Asian people (0.1%), 15,904 Amerindian people (0.1%). People of Portuguese ancestry predominate in most of

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1176-592: Is koki or moin-moin , where the cowpeas are mashed into a paste, mixed with spices and steamed in banana leaves. They also use the cowpea paste as a supplement in infant formula when weaning babies off milk. Slaves brought to America and the West Indies cooked cowpeas much the same way as they did in Africa, although many people in the American South considered cowpeas not suitable for human consumption. A popular dish

1274-501: Is a good source of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals such as calcium, iron and zinc, although its nutritional value is usually reduced by the presence of antinutritional factors such as phytates , fibers, lectins , polyphenols and tannins that affect minerals' bioavailability . Cowpea The cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata ) is an annual herbaceous legume from the genus Vigna . Its tolerance for sandy soil and low rainfall have made it an important crop in

1372-423: Is also known for producing significant athletes in volleyball , yachting , swimming , basketball , skateboarding , surfing , beach volleyball , rowing , jiu-jitsu and MMA . The state hosted the 1950 and 2014 FIFA World Cup finals, as well as the 2016 Summer Olympics . It also hosted the 2007 Pan American Games , the 1995 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m) , the 1954 FIBA World Championship and

1470-616: Is available outside of the state of Bahia as well, including the streets of its neighborboring state of Sergipe , and the markets of Rio de Janeiro . Acarajé is an essential ritual food used in Afro-Brazilian religious traditions such as Candomblé . The first acarajé in a Candomblé ritual is offered to the orixá Exu . They vary in size based on their offering to a specific deity: large, round acarajé are offered to Xangô ; ones smaller in form are offered to Iansã . Small, fritter-size acarajé are offered to erês , or child spirits. Acarajé

1568-745: Is composed of rice flour, mashed banana, baking powder, and sugar. After mixed together, it is dropped in oil by hand, and fried, similar to Puff-puff . It is then formed into a ball. Akara is usually prepared for events like Pulnado (event held due to the birth of a child), a wedding, funeral, or party. Acarajé sold on the street in Brazil are variously made with fried beef, mutton , dried shrimp , pigweed, fufu osun sauce, and coconut. Today in Bahia, Brazil, most street vendors who serve acarajé are women, easily recognizable by their all-white cotton dresses and headscarves and caps. They first appeared in Bahia selling acarajé in

1666-500: Is found in the states of Bahia and states of Bahia and Rio de Janeiro. Acarajé was listed as a national intangible historic heritage ( patrimônio nacional imaterial ), by the National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage in 2004; the role of baianas in the preparation and sale of acarajé was recognized in the same act. In October 2023, Rio de Janeiro declared the fritter to be part of that city's cultural heritage. Akara

1764-517: Is found within the species with large variations in the size, shape, and structure of the plant. Cowpeas can be erect, semierect ( trailing ), or climbing . The crop is mainly grown for its seeds, which are high in protein , although the leaves and immature seed pods can also be consumed. Cowpeas were domesticated in Africa and are one of the oldest crops to be farmed. A second domestication event probably occurred in Asia, before they spread into Europe and

1862-604: Is not uncommon in some mountainous cities such as Teresópolis, Nova Friburgo and Petrópolis and snow has been reported occasionally in the Itatiaia National Park. Annual mean temperatures on the coast are around 23 °C (73 °F), 26 °C (79 °F) in summer and 20 °C (68 °F) in winter. In the mountains annual mean temperatures are around 18 °C (64 °F) but can range from 20 °C (68 °F) at an elevation of 600 to 700 metres (2,000 to 2,300 ft) above sea level to 7 °C (45 °F) in

1960-519: Is part of the Mata Atlântica biome and is made up of two distinct morphological areas: a coastal plain , known as baixada , and a plateau , which are disposed in parallel fashion from the shoreline on the Atlantic Ocean inland towards Minas Gerais . The coastline extends 635 kilometers and is formed by the bays of Guanabara , Sepetiba , and Ilha Grande . There are prominent slopes near

2058-644: Is served by several quick access routes, such as the Linha Vermelha/Red Line and Linha Amarela/Yellow Line freeways and Avenida Brasil/Brazil Avenue , thus conveniently serving residents of the city's southern, northern and western zones. There are special shuttle buses linking Galeão to Santos Dumont, and bus and taxi service to the rest of the city. The airport complex also has Brazil's longest runway at 4,240 metres (13,910 ft), and one of South America's largest and best equipped cargo logistics terminals. Rio de Janeiro has several important ports, such as

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2156-410: Is served split in half and stuffed with vatapá and caruru – spicy pastes made from shrimp , ground cashews , palm oil and other ingredients. A vegetarian version is typically served with hot peppers and green tomatoes . Acarajé can also come in a second form called abará, where the nutritious ingredients are steamed instead of deep-fried. Àkàrà is a Yoruba word meaning "pastry" or

2254-410: Is still 50% below the estimated potential production yield. In some tradition cropping methods, the yield can be as low as 100 kilograms per hectare (89 lb/acre). Outside Africa, the major production areas are Asia, Central America , and South America . Brazil is the world's second-leading producer of cowpea seed, accounting for 17% of annual cowpea production, although most is consumed within

2352-475: Is susceptible to mosaic viruses , which cause a green mosaic pattern to appear in the leaves. The cowpea mosaic virus (CPMV), discovered in 1959, has become a useful research tool. CPMV is stable and easy to propagate to a high yield, making it useful in vector development and protein expression systems . One of the plant's defenses against some insect attacks is the cowpea trypsin inhibitor (CpTI). CpTI has been transgenically inserted into other crops as

2450-463: Is the 4th producer in the country (116 million fruits in 2019), which is produced in the cities of São Francisco de Itabapoana , São João da Barra , Campos dos Goytacazes and Quissamã . It has small productions of cassava (216 thousand tons in 2019, 20th place in the country), banana (76 thousand tons in 2019, 20th place in the country), orange (68 thousand tons in 2019, 10th place in the country), tangerine (37 thousand tons in 2019, 5th place in

2548-792: Is the city of Rio de Janeiro , which was the capital of the Portuguese Colony of Brazil from 1763 to 1815, of the following United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves from 1815 to 1822, and of later independent Brazil as a kingdom and republic from 1822 to 1960. The state's 22 largest cities are Rio de Janeiro , São Gonçalo , Duque de Caxias , Nova Iguaçu , Niterói , Campos dos Goytacazes , Belford Roxo , São João de Meriti , Petrópolis , Volta Redonda , Magé , Macaé , Itaboraí , Cabo Frio , Armação dos Búzios , Angra dos Reis , Nova Friburgo , Barra Mansa , Barra do Piraí , Teresópolis , Mesquita and Nilópolis . Rio de Janeiro

2646-501: Is the city that receives the most foreign tourists in all of Latin America. In Brazil, it receives almost 40% of foreign tourists who visit the country and receives the most tourists in all of Brazil. It was named one of the ten most beautiful cities in the world by global travel guide website Ucityguides. It is the city that receives the most tourists from cruise ships. During the summer, the city receives more than three million tourists, being

2744-534: Is the largest component of GDP at 51.6%, followed by the service sector at 47.8%. Agriculture represents 0.6% of GDP (2004). Rio de Janeiro (state) exports: petroleum 44.8%, fuel 17.5%, siderurgy 13%, chemicals 3.6%, nonferrous metals 2.8%, vehicles 2.1% (2002). Participation in the Brazilian economy: 15.6% (2004). There are 3,915,724 vehicles in the state (as of Jan. 2006), 10 million mobile phones, 5.3 million telephones, and 92 cities. Rio de Janeiro

2842-492: Is the main exporter of cowpeas and Nigeria the main importer. Exact figures for cowpea production are hard to come up with as it is not a major export crop. Estimating world cowpea production is rather difficult, as it is usually grown in a mixture with other crops, but according to a 1997 estimate, cowpeas were cultivated on 12.5 million hectares (31 million acres) and had a worldwide production of 3 million metric tons (3,000,000 long tons; 3,300,000 short tons). While they play

2940-409: Is the main preharvest pest of the cowpea. Other important pests include pod sucking bugs , thrips , aphids , cowpea curculios and post-harvest beetles Callosobruchus maculatus and Callosobruchus chinensis . M. vitrata causes the most damage to the growing cowpea due to their large host range and cosmopolitan distribution . It causes damage to the flower buds, flowers, and pods of

3038-512: Is the smallest state by area in the Southeast macroregion and one of the smallest in Brazil. It is, however, the third most populous Brazilian state , with a population of over 16 million people at the 2022 Census (making it the most densely populated state in Brazil ), and it has the third longest coastline in the country (after those of the states of Bahia and Maranhão ). In the Brazilian flag ,

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3136-479: Is toxic to lepidopteran species including the maruca. BT Cowpea was commercialised in Nigeria in 2019. Severe C. maculatus infestations can affect 100% of the stored peas and cause up to 60% loss within a few months. The weevil generally enters the cowpea pod through holes before harvest and lays eggs on the dry seed. The larvae burrow their way into the seed, feeding on the endosperm . The weevil develops into

3234-476: Is used in Candomblé rituals in the states of Bahia, Rio de Janeiro , São Paulo , Pernambuco , Alagoas , Sergipe, and Maranhão . It is closely related to acaçá , a similar ritual food made of steamed corn mush. Acarajé de azeite-doce is a variety of acarajé fried in an oil other than palm oil; olive oil or other vegetable oils are generally used. Acarajé de azeite-doce is used in Candomblé offerings to orixás with

3332-465: Is usually prepared in large quantities and distributed across every household close to the deceased. Akara also used to be prepared in large as a sign of victory, when warriors came back victorious from war. The women, especially the wives of the Warriors were to fry akara and distribute it to the villagers. Akara (as it is known in southwest Nigeria) a recipe taken to Brazil by the enslaved peoples from

3430-559: The 1963 FIBA World Championship , among many others. Horse racing takes place at the Gávea Hippodrome . Jacarepaguá was the venue for the Brazilian leg of the Formula One Grand Prix , between 1978 and 1990, and Champ Car (1996–1999). The WCT and WQS surf tours took place on Rio's beaches between 1985 and 2001. The capital also hosts an ATP 500 tennis tournament . The capital has three major stadiums: Maracanã ,

3528-693: The Maracanã stadium are among the main visiting points. Among the biggest events in the carioca calendar is the Carnival , which, according to the Guinness Book, is the biggest party on the planet with five million revelers playing in the streets of the city, and the New Year's party in Copacabana, which is also Listed in Guinness Book as the largest New Year's party in the world, with more than 4 million people spread across

3626-613: The Port of Rio de Janeiro , the Port of Itaguaí and the Port of Açu , in addition to others such as Niterói and Angra dos Reis. All ports in the state have several rail and road accesses.The Port of Rio de Janeiro is a major exporter of Minas Gerais iron, steel products and vehicles, importing containers, wheat, steel products and zinc concentrate. The Port of Itaguaí exports Minas Gerais iron ore and containerized cargo, importing coal, coal coke, containerized cargo, alumina and steel products. Açu, in 2023,

3724-469: The Royal Military Academy  [ PT ] . There followed a process of cultural enhancement influenced not only by the arrival of the royal family, but also by the presence of European graphic artists who were hired to record the society and Brazilian natural features. During this same time, The Royal School of Sciences, Arts, and Works  [ PT ] was founded as well. In 1834,

3822-811: The Serra da Mantiqueira which forms the physical border with neighbouring Minas Gerais . Its principal rivers are the Guandu , the Piraí , the Paraíba do Sul , the Macaé and the Muriaé . The entire state is located within the tropics (the Tropic of Capricorn passes just a few kilometers south of the state's southernmost point) so a tropical climate is predominant. However, due to altitude, temperatures can drop to freezing point or below in some parts. Frost

3920-605: The West African coast. It is called "akara" by the Yoruba people of south-western Nigeria and by the citizens of Sierra Leone , "kosai" by the Hausa people of Nigeria or "koose" in Ghana and is a popular breakfast dish, eaten with millet or corn pudding . In Nigeria, akara is commonly eaten with bread, ogi (or eko), a type of cornmeal made with fine corn flour. In Sierra Leone, akara

4018-482: The semiarid regions across Africa and Asia . It requires very few inputs, as the plant's root nodules are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen , making it a valuable crop for resource-poor farmers and well-suited to intercropping with other crops. The whole plant is used as forage for animals, with its use as cattle feed likely responsible for its name. Four subspecies of cowpeas are recognised, of which three are cultivated. A high level of morphological diversity

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4116-709: The 1970s, with the transfer of the capital to Brasilia, Rio de Janeiro began to be one of the worst states in the country in terms of economic dynamism. There was no political discussion about the course of the city after it ceased to be the country's capital. "Rio de Janeiro was a job hanger for politicians from all over Brazil. Everyone referred a friend, a relative to take a position in the federal district," explains Marieta de Moraes Ferreira, history professor at UFRJ . Left-wing governors and mayors such as Leonel Brizola , Saturnino Braga , Marcello Allencar , César Maia , Anthony Garotinho , and Benedita da Silva , among others, helped drive away many industries that still existed in

4214-402: The 19th century. Earnings from the sale of acarajé were used both to buy the freedom of enslaved family members until the abolition of slavery in Brazil in 1888 ; its sale additionally served as a source of family income. The city now has more than 500 acarajé vendors. The image of these women, often simply called baianas , frequently appears in artwork from the region of Bahia. Acarajé, however,

4312-585: The Americas. The seeds are usually cooked and made into stews and curries, or ground into flour or paste. Most cowpeas are grown on the African continent, particularly in Nigeria and Niger , which account for 66% of world production. A 1997 estimate suggests that cowpeas are cultivated on 12.5 million hectares (31 million acres) of land, have a worldwide production of 3 million tonnes and are consumed by 200 million people on

4410-648: The Brazilian GDP . The state of Rio de Janeiro is located within the Brazilian geopolitical region classified as the Southeast (assigned by IBGE ). Rio de Janeiro shares borders with all the other states in the same Southeast macroregion: Minas Gerais ( N and NW ), Espírito Santo ( NE ) and São Paulo ( SW ). It is bounded on the east and south by the South Atlantic Ocean . Rio de Janeiro has an area of 43,653 km (16,855 sq mi). Its capital

4508-516: The Greeks and Romans. The first written references to the cowpea were in 300 BC and they probably reached Central and North America during the slave trade through the 17th to early 19th centuries. Cowpeas thrive in poor dry conditions, growing well in soils up to 85% sand. This makes them a particularly important crop in arid, semidesert regions where not many other crops will grow. As well as an important source of food for humans in poor, arid regions,

4606-441: The Itatiaia National Park. Summers in these areas tend to be warm but not hot, with averages around 22 °C (72 °F). Winters are quite chilly by Brazilian standards with lows around 8 to 9 °C (46 to 48 °F) Rains tend to be concentrated in the summer (December to March) with a dry season in the winter (June to September). Most of the state receives between 1,000 and 1,500 millimetres (39 and 59 in) of rainfall in

4704-558: The Lagos region are also very popular, in the towns of Cabo Frio and Arraial do Cabo ; and Ilha Grande . The mountainous region is home to the imperial city, Petrópolis , seat of Brazil's ancient empire; its neighbor Teresópolis ; Nova Friburgo , colonized by the Germans; Penedo , colonized by the Finns, and the village of Visconde de Mauá, in the municipality of Resende , as winter refuges to enjoy

4802-697: The Presidente Dutra highway was re-tendered to enable a billion-dollar upgrade project for the Serra das Araras road, the oldest section of the highway, built in the 1920s. Generally, the state's highways have a large movement of freight and passenger vehicles. The main Federal highways that cross the state are: Since August 2004, with the transfer of many flights from Santos Dumont Airport , to Rio de Janeiro-Galeão International Airport , Rio de Janeiro has second international airport of Brazil. According to data from

4900-407: The adherents of these and other minorities constitute 6.2% of Rio de Janeiro's population. Rio de Janeiro is the state with the lowest percentage of Catholics in Brazil, and the state with the highest percentage of people without religion (such as atheists and agnostics ). In addition, it is the state with the highest percentage of spiritists in Brazil. The variety of denominations is a mark of

4998-507: The barrel of oil reached $ 93.48. But oil revenues, used by the government to repay financing debts, including the payroll of idle workers, fell to 1.6 billion reais. The international price of a barrel fell to USD 50.48 in 2016 and reached a low of USD 28. Petrobras became the target of the largest anti-corruption operation in Brazil, with the participation of governors such as Sérgio Cabral Filho and Pezão , linked to leftist Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva , pushing back investments that were to be at

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5096-682: The best-known Brazilian city abroad. The capital of Rio de Janeiro is internationally known for the beauty of its beaches and hills, in addition to having several sites. According to Embratur , it is the most sought-after destination by foreign tourists who visit Brazil for leisure, and second place in business and events tourism. Christ the Redeemer , elected one of the seven wonders of the modern world , Sugarloaf (with its famous cable car), Rodrigo de Freitas Lagoon , Copacabana , Ipanema and Barra da Tijuca beaches, Tijuca forest , Quinta da Boa Vista , Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden , Cinelândia and

5194-584: The capital. Italians and Spaniards are also present in the capital as well as in the surrounding cities. Racial groups of Rio de Janeiro in 2022 Religion in Rio de Janeiro (2010) According to the 2010 Brazilian census, there were 7,324,315 Roman Catholics (45.8%), 4,696,906 Protestants (29.4%), 647,572 Spiritists (4%), and 2,416,303 people without religion (14.6%). There are also adherents of Islam , Judaism , Buddhism , Hinduism , esoterism , neo-paganism , afro-Brazilian religions and Asian religions. Together,

5292-434: The century, it was one of the largest producers in the world. In Brazil, however, as of 2020, only two sugar mills were operating in the city. The state, which harvested about 10 million tonnes in the 1980s, reached only 1 million tonnes in 2017, when it began to recover, harvesting 1.8 million tonnes in the 2019/ 20. In the agricultural field, the State of Rio currently stands out for some products, such as pineapple , where it

5390-476: The city of Rio de Janeiro was established by Estácio de Sá . In the 17th century, cattle raising and sugar cane cultivation stimulated the city's progress, which was definitively assured when the port started to export gold extracted from Minas Gerais in the 18th century. In 1763, Rio de Janeiro became the capital of Colonial Brazil. With the flight of the Portuguese royal family from Portugal to Brazil in 1808,

5488-542: The city of Rio de Janeiro was transformed into a "neutral city" , remaining as capital of the state, while the captainships became provinces, with headquarters in Niterói , a neighbouring city. In 1889, the city became the capital of the Republic, the neutral city became the federal district and the province a state. In 1894, Petrópolis became the capital of Rio de Janeiro, until 1902 when Niterói recovered its capital status. With

5586-438: The city's beaches, including 2 million on Copacabana Beach alone. Of the 10 most visited cities in the country by leisure tourists, 4 are in the state of Rio. In addition to the capital, in the lake region, Armação dos Búzios , and in the south of the state, Angra dos Reis , both focused on high-end tourism; also in the south of the state, the town of Paraty , with its colonial architecture and cobbled streets. The beaches of

5684-554: The city, while fluminense continues to be used for the state as a whole. European presence in Rio de Janeiro dates back to 1502. Rio de Janeiro originated from parts of the captainships of de Tomé and São Vicente. Between 1555 and 1567, the territory was occupied by the French, who intended to install a colony, France Antarctique . Aiming to prevent the occupation of the Frenchmen, in March 1565,

5782-540: The cold. The state of Rio de Janeiro is one of the best in the country in terms of infrastructure, although it has some shortcomings, mainly due to its mountainous terrain. In the highway sector, there are about 800 km of highways , the main highway being BR-101 , then BR-116 . The Presidente Dutra highway, the name given to the BR-116 on the section that connects the country's two main cities (São Paulo to Rio), passing through Volta Redonda , Barra Mansa and Resende,

5880-471: The country), lemon (20 thousand tons in 2019, 5th place in the country) and persimmon , where it has 6% of national production, being 4th place in the country. The state was also an important producer of coconuts , in the regions of Quissamã and the Lakes Region, and in 2009 it was the 7th national producer, but between 2010 and 2020 several producers abandoned the activity. The industrial sector

5978-401: The country. Rio de Janeiro (state) Rio de Janeiro ( Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈʁi.u dʒi ʒɐˈne(j)ɾu] , [ˈʁi.u dʒɐˈ-] ) is one of the 27 federative units of Brazil . It has the second largest economy of Brazil, with the largest being that of the state of São Paulo . The state, which has 8.2% of the Brazilian population, is responsible for 9.2% of

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6076-485: The cowpea. Although there is no archaeological evidence for early cowpea cultivation, the centre of diversity of the cultivated cowpea is West Africa, leading an early consensus that this is the likely centre of origin and place of early domestication. New research using molecular markers has suggested that domestication may have instead occurred in East Africa and currently both theories carry equal weight. While

6174-641: The crop can also be used as feed for livestock. Its nitrogen-fixing ability means that as well as functioning as a sole crop, the cowpea can be effectively intercropped with sorghum , millet , maize , cassava , or cotton . The optimum temperature for cowpea growth is 30 °C (86 °F), making it only available as a summer crop for most of the world. It grows best in regions with an annual rainfall between 400 and 700 mm (16 and 28 in). The ideal soils are sandy and it has better tolerance for infertile and acid soil than most other crops. Generally, 133,000 seeds are planted per hectare (54,000/acre) for

6272-519: The crop can thrive in the semiarid climate , where rainfall is often less than 500 mm (20 in). The timing of planting is crucial, as the plant must mature during the seasonal rains. The crop is mostly intercropped with pearl millet , and plants are selected that provide both food and fodder value instead of the more specialised varieties. Storage of the seeds can be problematic in Africa due to potential infestation by postharvest pests. Traditional methods of protecting stored grain include using

6370-448: The crop, and the growth conditions and grower preferences for each variety vary from region to region. However, as the plant is primarily self-pollinating , its genetic diversity within varieties is relatively low. Cowpeas can either be short and bushy (as short as 20 cm or 8 in) or act like a vine by climbing supports or trailing along the ground (to a height of 2 m or 6 ft 7 in). The taproot can penetrate to

6468-540: The date of cultivation began may be uncertain, it is still considered one of the oldest domesticated crops. Remains of charred cowpeas from rock shelters in Central Ghana have been dated to the 2nd millennium BC . In 2300 BC, the cowpea is believed to have made its way into Southeast Asia, where secondary domestication events may have occurred. From there they traveled north to the Mediterranean, where they were used by

6566-404: The dish itself. The Brazilian term acarajé , according to Márcio de Jagun, derives from the word is derived from the phrase àkàrà n'jẹ , meaning "come and eat akara"; the phrase was used to call out to customers by women selling akara on the street. Akara plays a significant role in the Yoruba culture , as it is specially prepared when a person who has come of age (70 and above) dies. It

6664-502: The erect varieties and 60,000 per hectare (24,000/acre) for the climbing and trailing varieties. The seeds can be harvested after about 100 days or the whole plant used as forage after about 120 days. Leaves can be picked from 4 weeks after planting. These characteristics, along with its low fertilisation requirements, make the cowpea an ideal crop for resource-poor farmers living in the Sahel region of West Africa. Early-maturing varieties of

6762-410: The forefront of the pre-salt exploration. Even when state municipalities received millions of reais in royalties, public spending was used for marginal improvements, for beautification, such as porcelain floors, whale-shaped monuments, without generating revenue or benefit. jobs for the population. Political leaders are blamed for the lack of a unified project for Rio de Janeiro's economy. The state

6860-1265: The former largest stadium in the world in terms of capacity; Engenhão , planned to host the athletics and football events of the 2007 Pan American Games, and São Januário , the largest private stadium in Rio. In the state of Rio, Olympic medalists were born such as: Martine Grael , Clínio de Freitas , Daniel Adler , Eduardo Penido , Isabel Swan , Kiko Pelicano , Marcelo Ferreira , Marcos Soares , Nelson Falcão and Ronaldo Senfft in yachting; Thiago Pereira , Bruno Fratus and Jorge Fernandes in swimming; Robson Caetano and José Telles da Conceição in athletics; Luiz Felipe de Azevedo in horse riding; Afrânio da Costa and Fernando Soledade in shooting; Affonso Évora , Alfredo da Motta , Algodão , Edson Bispo , Fernando Brobró , Fritz , Marcus Vinícius Dias , Ruy de Freitas and Sérgio Macarrão in basketball; Adriana Samuel , Ana Cristina , André Nascimento , Bernard , Bernardinho , Bruninho , Fabiana Alvim , Fernanda Ferreira , Fernandão , Janina , Kátia Lopes , Leandro Vissotto , Marcelo Elgarten , Nalbert , Rui , Tande , Thaísa and Valeskinha in volleyball; Bárbara Seixas , Jackie Silva , Raquel da Silva, Sandra Pires in beach volleyball, in addition to Hugo Calderano ,

6958-400: The greatest table tennis player in the history of Brazil; Nelson Piquet , three-time F1 world champion, Bob Burnquist , considered one of the greatest skateboarders of all time and Marcus Vinicius D'Almeida , archery world runner-up. An eagle , symbol of Brazil's royal family, appears on the state flag with the rock formation Dedo de Deus (" The Finger of God ") near Teresópolis in

7056-494: The insecticidal properties of Neem extracts, mixing the grain with ash or sand, using vegetable oils, combining ash and oil into a soap solution or treating the cowpea pods with smoke or heat. More modern methods include storage in airtight containers, using gamma irradiation, or heating or freezing the seeds. Temperatures of 60 °C (140 °F) kill the weevil larvae, leading to a recent push to develop cheap forms of solar heating that can be used to treat stored grain. One of

7154-510: The leaves, green seeds and pods can also be consumed, meaning the cowpea can be used as a food source before the dried peas are harvested. Like other legumes , cowpeas are cooked to make them edible, usually by boiling. Cowpeas can be prepared in stews, soups, purees, casseroles and curries. They can also be processed into a paste or flour. Chinese long beans can be eaten raw or cooked, but as they easily become waterlogged are usually sautéed, stir-fried, or deep-fried. A common snack in Africa

7252-403: The more recent developments is the use a cheap, reusable double-bagging system (called PICs ) that asphyxiates the cowpea weevils. Insects are a major factor in the low yields of African cowpea crops, and they affect each tissue component and developmental stage of the plant. In bad infestations, insect pressure is responsible for over 90% loss in yield. The legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata ,

7350-509: The nutritional value of the leaves and immature pods, what is available suggests that the leaves have a similar nutritional value to black nightshade and sweet potato leaves, while the green pods have less antinutritional factors than the dried seeds. Most cowpeas are grown on the African continent, particularly in Nigeria and Niger, which account for 66% of world cowpea production. The Sahel region also contains other major producers such as Burkina Faso , Ghana , Senegal , and Mali . Niger

7448-449: The ocean, featuring also diverse environments, such as restinga vegetation , bays , lagoons and tropical forests . Most of the state however consists of highlands, often higher than 1000 m, formed by several mountain chains like the Serra do Mar which separates Rio from the state of São Paulo . The highest point of the state, the Pico das Agulhas Negras (Black Needles Peak) is located in

7546-403: The official Brazilian travel bureau, Embratur, nearly 40% of foreign tourists who visit Brazil choose Rio as their gateway, meaning Galeão Airport. Besides linking Rio to the rest of Brazil with domestic flights, Galeão has connections to 18 other countries. It can handle up to 15 million passengers a year in two passenger terminals. Located 20 kilometers from downtown Rio, the international airport

7644-632: The official demonym of the Royal Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro and subsequently of the Province of Rio de Janeiro. From 1783 through the Imperial Regime , carioca remained an unofficial term which other Brazilians used for the inhabitants of the city as well as the province. During the first years of the Brazilian Republic, carioca came to be the name given to those who lived in the city's slums or

7742-503: The other common names of southern pea and crowder pea. The sesquipedalis subspecies arrived in the United States via Asia. It is characterised by unusually long pods, leading to the Latin name ( sesquipedalis means "foot and a half long") and the common names of yardlong bean, asparagus bean, and Chinese long-bean. Group Common name A large morphological diversity is found within

7840-399: The plant, with infestations resulting in a 20–88% loss of yield. While the insect can cause damage through all growth stages, most of the damage occurs during flowering. Biological control has had limited success, so most preventive methods rely on the use of agrichemicals . Genetically modified cowpeas has been developed to express the cry protein from Bacillus thuringiensis , which

7938-404: The population of Rio, and those with a Portuguese father or a Portuguese mother accounted for 30,84%. In other words, native born Portuguese and their children accounted for 51,20% of the inhabitants of Rio, or a total of 267664 people in 1890. Other European ethnic groups , such as Swiss , Finnish and Germans settled mostly in the mountainous areas ( Nova Friburgo , Petrópolis , etc.) and in

8036-576: The preflowering stage in cowpea can reduce the yield potential by 360 kg/ha. Crop wild relatives are the prominent source of genetic material, which can be tapped to improve biotic/abiotic tolerance in crops. International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria and Institut de l’Environment et de Recherches Agricoles are looking to tap into the genetic diversity of wild cowpeas and transfer that into cultivars to make them more tolerant to different stresses and adaptive to climate change. Cowpeas are grown mostly for their edible beans, although

8134-460: The presence of religious diversity in the demographic profile of the state. The state of Rio de Janeiro has the 4th best education in Brazil, second only to the Federal District , São Paulo and Goiás . The state has the fourth lowest illiteracy rate in Brazil, about 4% of its population. The illiteracy rate in the state is compared to countries like Singapore, Portugal, and China. Most of

8232-646: The region soon benefited from urban reforms to house the Portuguese. Chief among the promoted changes were the transformation of agencies of public administration and justice, the creation of new churches and hospitals, the foundation of the first bank of the country (the Bank of Brazil ) and the Royal Press, with the Gazette do Rio of Janeiro. The following years witnessed the creation of the Jardim Botânico (Botanical Garden) and

8330-435: The relocation of the federal capital to Brasília in 1960, the city of Rio de Janeiro became Guanabara State . Niterói remained the state capital for Rio de Janeiro state, while Rio de Janeiro served the same status for Guanabara. In 1975, a further change took place, with the merger of the states of Rio de Janeiro and the state of Guanabara, restoring the then city-state to the status of a municipality, governed by mayors. In

8428-434: The seeds and leaves. However, it does contain some antinutritional elements, notable phytic acid and protease inhibitors , which reduce the nutritional value of the crop. Methods such as fermentation, soaking, germination, debranning, and autoclaving are used to combat the antinutritional properties of the cowpea by increasing the bioavailability of nutrients within the crop. Although little research has been conducted on

8526-405: The seeds become more spherical the more restricted they are within the pod. Their texture and colour are very diverse. They can have a smooth or rough coat and be speckled, mottled, or blotchy. Colours include white, cream, green, red, brown, and black, or various combinations. Compared to most other important crops, little is known about the domestication , dispersal, and cultivation history of

8624-429: The small stalks on the flower petals. Common names for cultivated cowpeas include black-eye pea, southern pea, niebe (alternatively ñebbe), and crowder pea. All cultivated cowpeas are found within the universally accepted V. unguiculata subspecies unguiculata classification, which is then commonly divided into four cultivar groups: unguiculata , biflora , sesquipedalis , and textilis. The classification of

8722-456: The state is represented by Mimosa , the beta star in the Southern Cross (β Cru). The original demonym for the State of Rio de Janeiro is fluminense , from Latin flumen, fluminis , meaning "river". While carioca (from Old Tupi ) is an older term, first attested in 1502, fluminense was sanctioned in 1783, twenty years after the city had become the capital of the Brazilian colonies, as

8820-656: The state's leading universities are public. The most prestigious university is the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro , regarded as the best Federal university in Brazil , and fifth best in Latin America according to the QS World University Rankings . Some other well-known colleges, and universities in the state: Much of the economy of the state of Rio de Janeiro is based on the provision of services, with

8918-499: The state's mountainous interior and connects Rio de Janeiro to the northeastern region of Brazil. The BR-040 connects Rio to Minas Gerais and its capital Belo Horizonte . Also of note is the Metropolitan Arc , which surrounds the capital with the aim of removing unnecessary traffic from this area, and which is in the process of being fully completed, with only 23 km of duplication of an old existing section missing. Recently,

9016-402: The state. Combined with the incitement to favelas, where Brizola said for example that "the favela is not a problem, the favela is a solution", the capital has deteriorated in a few decades, dragging down the State. The state still maintains itself as the largest oil producer in Brazil (80% of the total), where royalties and special participations brought the state 4.2 billion reais in 2014, when

9114-400: The state. The Brazilian census of 1920 showed that 39,74% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil lived in Rio de Janeiro. Including all of the Rio de Janeiro, the proportion raised to 46,30% of the Portuguese who lived in Brazil. The numerical presence of the Portuguese was extremely high, accounting for 72% of the foreigners who lived in the capital. Portuguese born people accounted for 20,36% of

9212-416: The wild relatives within V. unguiculata is more complicated, with over 20 different names having been used and between 3 and 10 subgroups described. The original subgroups of stenophylla , dekindtiana , and tenuis appear to be common in all taxonomic treatments, while the variations pubescens and protractor were raised to subspecies level by a 1993 characterisation. The first written reference of

9310-458: The word 'cowpea' appeared in 1798 in the United States. The name was most likely acquired due to their use as a fodder crop for cows. Black-eyed pea, a common name used for the unguiculata cultivar group, describes the presence of a distinctive black spot at the hilum of the seed. Black-eyed peas were first introduced to the southern states in the United States and some early varieties had peas squashed closely together in their pods, leading to

9408-419: Was Hoppin' John , which contained black-eyed peas cooked with rice and seasoned with pork. Over time, cowpeas became more universally accepted and now Hoppin' John is seen as a traditional Southern dish ritually served on New Year's Day. Cowpea seeds provide a rich source of proteins and food energy , as well as minerals and vitamins. This complements the mainly cereal diet in countries that grow cowpeas as

9506-488: Was the first duplicate highway in the country, in 1967. The section of the BR-101 is the one that connects the capital to the border with Espírito Santo , passing through important towns such as Niterói , bordering Cabo Frio and Búzios , then Macaé and finally Campos dos Goytacazes . The section between Rio Bonito and Campos, bidding to have its 176 km duplicated, already has 126 km doubled. BR-116 passes through

9604-447: Was the third largest private iron ore terminal in Brazil, where it is responsible for 30% of the country's oil exports. In addition, in 2023, it was building the largest thermoelectric park in Latin America, and it houses the largest offshore support base in the world. The sport that stands out the most in the state is football . The three main football clubs in Rio de Janeiro are Botafogo , Fluminense and Vasco da Gama . The state

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