The Aichi D1A or Navy Type 94/96 Carrier Bomber ( Allied reporting name " Susie ") was a Japanese carrier-based dive bomber of the 1930s. A single-engine, two-seat biplane based on the Heinkel He 50 , the D1A was produced by Aichi for the Imperial Japanese Navy , remaining in service as a trainer at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor . The D1A was produced in two variants, the D1A1 ( Navy Type 94 Carrier Bomber ), and the D1A2 ( Navy Type 96 Carrier Bomber , sometimes referred to as the D2A ).
48-619: The D1A came out of the Imperial Japanese Navy's need for an advanced carrier-based dive bomber, and in late 1934 the IJN ordered the finalisation of the Aichi AB-9 design which was produced as the early model D1A1. However, the D1A1 was not designed by Aichi Tokei Denki Kabushiki Kaisha [ ja ] aircraft company (later Aichi Kokuki ), but by Ernst Heinkel Flugzeugwerke at the request of
96-445: A displacement of just 150 cc (or just 100 cc for two-stroke engines ) in 1949, dimensions and engine size limitations were gradually expanded in 1950, 1951, and 1955, to make kei cars more attractive to buyers, and production more viable to manufacturers. In 1955, the displacement limit was increased to 360 cc for both two-stroke and four-stroke engines , resulting in several new kei car models beginning production in
144-529: A fixed landing gear and a conventional type tail landing skid. Original models had 365 kW (490 hp) engines and it was not until later models that more powerful 433 kW (580 hp) engines were included in the construction. The D1A was primarily used in the Second Sino-Japanese War and up to the time Japan entered World War II in 1941. At the beginning of the Pacific War , all of
192-458: A continued market existed for the kei car. As sales improved, these engines only lasted for a model year or so until manufacturers had the time to develop maximum-sized engines. Only Daihatsu had a 550 cc engine ready and thus avoided developing transitional engines that did not immediately take full advantage of the new regulations. Kei car sales remained stagnant, however; while combined passenger and commercial kei car sales reached 700,000 for
240-450: A displacement increase of 110 cc (6.7 cu in), or twenty percent, while the maximum length was increased by 100 mm (3.9 in). These changes occurred during the 1990s Japanese economic bubble , and all manufacturers quickly developed new models to suit. Within five months, all major kei models had switched from 550 cc to 660 cc engines. For the first time, a power limit of 64 PS (47 kW; 63 hp)
288-488: A governmental backlash. This power limit matched the highest output reached by any kei manufacturer at the time and was a gentlemen's agreement amongst the manufacturers in an effort to avoid a kei-class horsepower war. The only kei car to have exceeded this limit is the Caterham 7 160, a lightweight British sports car that was not expected to qualify as a kei car, though it is small enough (in dimensions and displacement) to fit
336-604: A kei car in Japan, a kei version of the Smart Fortwo (called the Smart K ) was sold in Japan by Yanase from 2001 to 2004. The Smart K used revised rear fenders and reduced tire dimensions and track width to conform to kei regulations. The model was not a success, and sold the fewest examples of a kei car when it was marketed. The Suzuki Wagon R was the best-selling kei car in Japan between calendar years 1996 and 2011, except in 2003, when
384-407: A maximum vehicle length, width and height under 3.4 m (11.2 ft), 1.48 m (4.9 ft) and 2.0 m (6.6 ft), respectively, and engine displacement under 660 cc (40.3 cu in). A " gentleman's agreement " for a maximum power of 64 PS (63 hp; 47 kW) was reached between Japanese automakers and lawmakers. Kei cars have been very successful in Japan since
432-461: A motor vehicle at all, as street parking is generally restricted in Japan. Japan's carmakers also make microvans and kei trucks within this legal category. The kei category was created by the Japanese government in 1949, to stimulate both car ownership and growth of Japan's car industry. The regulations were revised multiple times until 1998, but since October 1998, the law consistently specifies
480-453: A quarter of its overall sales. In April 2014, the Japanese government significantly reduced advantages for kei car owners, imposing a higher sales tax, a higher gasoline tax, and a higher kei car tax, the last of which was raised by 50 percent—greatly reducing tax benefits compared to regular-sized cars. Daihatsu, Honda, Suzuki and Nissan-Mitsubishi (through the NMKV joint venture) are currently
528-428: A quarter of the exported kei vehicles. Due to the difficult economic environment, low-priced cars sold well at the turn of the decade; 1981 marked another successful year as Japanese kei car sales reached their highest since 1970 (at 1,229,809 units for cars and trucks). This was also thanks to a new phenomenon: To help boost their sales, Suzuki developed a new car which could be sold as a commercial vehicle although it
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#1733085299291576-401: A regular car. A 24-month insurance contract typically costs ¥18,980 at the time of registration versus ¥22,470 for a larger car. An automobile weight tax also is levied: The amount is ¥13,200 and ¥8,800 for a three- and two-year period, respectively, as compared to the ¥18,900 and ¥12,600 charged for larger-sized passenger cars. The savings are thus more than 30% in both cases. This weight tax
624-535: A single electric motor with a maximum output of 47 kW (63 hp; 64 PS). The eK X EV is a battery-electric version of the Mitsubishi eK X, and the Sakura is an update to Nissan's Dayz line. The two are eligible for EV purchase incentives in Japan, and as of June 2022, are also the cheapest new BEVs from a major Japanese manufacturer. The vehicle excise tax levy is 2% of the purchase price, compared to 3% for
672-465: A team from the League of Nations occasionally visited German aircraft manufacturers to monitor the ban on military aircraft research and production. A Japanese military attache who was a member of the monitoring team, let Heinkel know, confidentially and in advance, of the planned visits. Heinkel thus succeeded in continuing its design on the aircraft ordered by Aichi Aircraft without being spotted. In 1943
720-704: A version of the German-made Smart Fortwo was briefly imported and officially classified as a kei car. In addition, the British Caterham 7 160 and the Polish Polski Fiat 126p (Maluch) also received such classification. Japanese government regulations limit the outer physical size, and ( combustion ) engine displacement and power output of kei cars, see detailed table below. Kei cars have also been subject to other restrictions, chiefly lower speed limits than bigger vehicles; older Kei-cars also had
768-536: A warning chime that sounded when being driven too fast. Kei cars are issued special license plates , with black numbers on a yellow background for private use, and yellow numbers on a black background for commercial use, earning them the name "yellow-plate cars" in English-speaking circles. Modern Kei cars are often available with turbocharged engines, automatic and continuously variable transmissions, and choice of front-wheel or all-wheel drive . After
816-451: Is a shortening of kei-jidōsha , ( kanji : 軽自動車 ), which translates to English as "light automobile" ( pronounced [keːdʑidoːɕa] ). With restricted dimensions and engine specifications, owners enjoy lower tax and insurance rates which lead to a lower overall ownership cost. In most rural areas they are also exempt from the general Japanese shako shōmeisho ( 車庫証明書 ) parking-space ownership requirement to legally buy
864-756: The Daihatsu Move outsold the Wagon R. Starting in 2011, Toyota entered the kei car market for the first time. The resulting Toyota Pixis Space, a rebadged Daihatsu Move Conte , was expected to increase competition in that market. Nissan and Mitsubishi began to jointly produce the Mitsubishi eK (also sold as the Nissan Dayz and formerly the Nissan Otti). Honda's kei car lineup—the N-one , N-Box , and N-WGN —accounts for around
912-608: The Honda Z GS of January 1970. Power outputs also kept climbing, reaching a peak with the 40 PS (29 kW; 39 hp) Daihatsu Fellow Max SS of July 1970. Sales increased steadily, reaching a peak of 750,000 in 1970. Until 31 December 1974, kei cars used smaller license plates than regular cars, at 230 mm × 125 mm (9.1 in × 4.9 in). From 1975, they received medium-sized standard plates, which are 330 mm × 165 mm (13.0 in × 6.5 in). To set them apart from regular passenger cars,
960-466: The 'A' market-segment of motor vehicles. Although some Kei models are successfully exported or licensed, the great majority are designed and built for the Japanese domestic market only, as they are entirely optimized to offer the most appealing vehicles within the very specific to Japan Kei-car rules, in addition to mainly being built with the steering on the right. Contrary to popular belief, according to
1008-549: The 1 January 1990 regulations, there is no official power limit for Kei cars. The limit is dictated by a Gentleman's Agreement between Japanese auto manufacturers as the most powerful Kei car at the time was rated at 64 PS (47 kW; 63 hp). This agreement was reached to prevent a horsepower race, and to remain true to the modest spirit of the Kei class, to charge lower tax on small vehicles that are just enough to meet basic transportation needs. The kei legal class originated in
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#17330852992911056-510: The 1960s, consisting of over one-third of domestic new-car sales in fiscal year 2016, after dropping from a record 40 percent market share in 2013. To lower the market share of kei cars, Japan increased taxes on the category by 50% in 2014. In 2018, seven of the 10 top-selling models were nonetheless kei cars, including the top four, all boxy passenger vans : the Honda N-Box , Suzuki Spacia , Nissan Dayz , and Daihatsu Tanto . For exports,
1104-445: The 1980s progressed, kei cars became increasingly refined, losing their utilitarian origins, as Japanese customers became ever better off. Features such as electric windows , turbochargers, four-wheel drive , and air conditioning became available on kei-car models. Conversely, van versions of kei hatchbacks were now marketed to non-business customers to take advantage of even lower taxation and more lenient emissions rules; this move in
1152-661: The 1980s, Kei cars had matured so much in power, speed, and passive (crash) safety, that they were no longer bound to lower maximum speeds than other cars. Japan's carmakers since agreed on a self-imposed maximum 140 km/h (87 mph) speed, mostly because of their narrow width. Kei cars are often considered the Japanese equivalent of the European Union 's A-segment "city cars". However, contrary to Japan's special Kei cars' legal status and limitations, there are no EU- or pan-European legal restrictions, exceptions or benefits for what European auto journalism or market analysts call
1200-636: The Aichi company. The initial version designed by Heinkel was the He 50 , a similar model equipped with floats instead of landing gear. The subsequent model, the He 66 was provided to Aichi who immediately began production of it as the D1A1. The design of the D1A, based on the Heinkel He 66, an export model of the He 50, was designed as a biplane constructed of metal, with a fabric covering,
1248-695: The Japanese Transport Ministry. It was the world's first mass-produced electric car, and the first electric car to sell more than 10,000 units. Rebadged and slightly updated variants of the i-MiEV were also sold in Europe as the Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero . In 2011, Mitsubishi launched the MINICAB-MiEV; a battery electric version of the Minicab microvan, borrowing the drivetrain and key components from
1296-578: The aircraft division was spun off as Aichi Kokuki Kabushiki Kaisha (Aichi Aircraft Co., Ltd.). After the war, the company was reorganized, manufacturing kei cars under the Cony brand name in Japan. Its current descendant, Aichi Kikai Kōgyō Kabushiki Kaisha (Aichi Machine Industry Co., Ltd.), is integrated with the Nissan corporate structure. Kei cars Kei car is the smallest category of Japanese expressway -legal motor vehicles. The term kei
1344-509: The company relied initially on technical assistance from Heinkel , which influenced some of their designs. Later, with the prodding and support of the Imperial Japanese Navy , the company started making seaplanes using technology imported from Short Brothers in the UK . During the inter-war period, Aichi was the beneficiary of technology transferred from Heinkel of Germany. At the time,
1392-455: The era following the end of World War II , when most Japanese citizens could not afford a full-sized car, though many had enough money to buy a light motorcycle . To stimulate growth of the car industry, as well as offer alternative commuting means, and small delivery vehicles for shops and businesses, the kei-car category, reduced tax-burden, and accompanying legal maximums for "essential transportation" vehicles were created. At first limited to
1440-657: The first time since 1974, the small cars still lost market share in a quickly growing market. As the kei cars became larger and more powerful, another benefit appeared as exports increased considerably. In particular, export sales of kei trucks increased, while kei passenger car exports increased at a lower rate. In 1976, the number of exported kei cars and trucks combined was 74,633 (up 171% year-on-year), despite exports of passenger kei cars decreasing. In 1980, another record year occurred as exports grew by 80.3% (to 94,301 units), of which 77.6% were microtrucks. Nearly 17% of exports went to Europe, dwarfed by Chile , which took nearly
1488-484: The following years. These included the 1955 Suzuki Suzulight and the 1958 Subaru 360 (considered the first truly mass-produced kei cars), which were finally able to fill people's need for basic transportation without being too severely compromised. In 1955, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) also set forth goals to develop a " national car " that was larger than kei cars produced at
Aichi D1A - Misplaced Pages Continue
1536-633: The i-MiEV. As of March 2015, over 50,000 units across all variants (including the two minicab versions sold in Japan) have been sold worldwide since 2009. Production of the i-MiEV was discontinued in 2021. In May 2022, NMKV launched the Nissan-badged Sakura and the Mitsubishi-badged eK X EV in the Japanese domestic market . These models have a 20 kWh lithium-ion battery pack with an estimated WLTC range of 180 km (110 mi). Both use
1584-588: The market was spearheaded by Suzuki with their 1979 Alto , and competitors soon followed suit, with the Subaru Family Rex and the Daihatsu Mira appearing within a year's time. In the 1980s, the speed limit for kei cars was 80 km/h (50 mph). Government rules also mandated a warning chime to alert the driver if this speed was exceeded. The kei car regulations were revised in March 1990, allowing engines
1632-562: The mid-1960s, when the kei speed limit was increased to 60 km/h (37.3 mph). The early vehicles were comparable to the European 'bubble-cars' of the era. The class then went through a period of ever increasing sophistication, with an automatic transmission appearing in the Honda N360 in August 1968, and front disc brakes becoming available on a number of sporting kei cars, beginning with
1680-399: The new requirements. All manufacturers of kei cars were clamoring for increased engine displacement and vehicle size limits, claiming that the emissions standards could not be met with a functional 360-cc engine. In the end, the Japanese legislature relented, increasing the overall length and width restrictions by 200 mm (7.9 in) and 100 mm (3.9 in), respectively. Engine size
1728-424: The only mass-production manufacturers of kei cars. Mazda sells rebadged Suzuki models, Toyota and Subaru sell badge-engineered Daihatsu models, and Nissan-Mitsubishi sources their commercial kei models from Suzuki. The electric version of the Mitsubishi i , the Mitsubishi i-MiEV was the first electric kei car. This was launched for fleet purchasers in 2009 in the Japanese domestic market . It became available to
1776-439: The plates were now yellow and black rather than white and green. Throughout the 1970s, the government kept whittling away at the benefits offered to kei vehicles, which combined with ever stricter emissions standards to lower sales drastically through the first half of the decade. Previously exempt, mandatory annual inspections for kei cars were added in 1973 and put an additional damper on sales. Honda and Mazda withdrew from
1824-474: The regulations. Its engine is rated at 80 hp (60 kW; 81 PS)—since that is how the car is homologated in the United Kingdom, Japanese authorities told the importer that its power should remain unchanged. The Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association also self-imposes a speed limit of 140 km/h (87 mph) for kei cars. In a rare example of an overseas mass-produced model being sold as
1872-983: The remaining D1A1s were decommissioned and most of the D1A2s were retired from the front lines and served primarily in training units. The exception was 68 of the D1A2 model that operated as a second-line support until being retired in 1942. Data from Japanese Aircraft of the Pacific War and Aircraft of World War II - 300 of the World's Greatest aircraft 1939-45 General characteristics Performance Armament Related development Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era Related lists Aichi Kokuki 35°08′02″N 136°53′49″E / 35.1337981°N 136.8969623°E / 35.1337981; 136.8969623 Aichi Kokuki KK ( 愛知航空機株式会社 , Aichi Kōkūki Kabushiki Kaisha , Aichi Aircraft Co., Ltd.)
1920-422: The shrinking passenger kei car market in 1974 and 1976, respectively, although they both maintained a limited offering of commercial vehicles. Sales had been steadily declining, reaching a low of 150,000 passenger cars in 1975, 80% less than 1970 sales. Emissions laws were another problem for the kei car industry in the mid-1970s. From 1973 to 1978, emissions standards were to be tightened in four steps. Meeting
1968-435: The stricter standards, which were to be introduced in 1975, would be problematic for manufacturers of kei cars. This was particularly hard for Daihatsu and Suzuki , which focused on two-stroke engines, and especially Suzuki, a relatively small company whose entire lineup consisted of two-stroke kei cars. Daihatsu, though, had both the engineering backing and powerful connections of their owner, Toyota , to aid them in meeting
Aichi D1A - Misplaced Pages Continue
2016-447: The time. This goal influenced Japanese automobile manufacturers to determine how best to focus their product development efforts for kei cars or the larger "national" cars. The small exterior dimensions and engine displacement reflected the driving environment in Japan, with speed limits in Japan realistically not exceeding 40 km/h (24.9 mph) in urban areas. Kei cars were not allowed to be driven any faster than 40 km/h until
2064-616: The vehicles are generally too small and specialized to be profitable. Notable exceptions exist, for instance the Suzuki Alto and Daihatsu Cuore , which have been exported consistently from around 1980. The export version of the Suzuki Jimny has become very popular, both in and outside of Japan. Kei cars are both popular with the elderly, but also with youths and younger families because of their affordability and ease of use. Nearly all kei cars have been designed and manufactured in Japan, but
2112-481: The wider public as well as the global market in 2010. The i-MiEV uses a 47 kW (63 hp) permanent-magnet synchronous motor powered by a 16 kWh lithium-ion battery pack. It can charge overnight in 14 hours from home 100-volt mains, or in 30 minutes from quick-charging stations installed at fleet locations. Its range is 100 km (62 mi) as tested by the US EPA , and 160 km (99 mi) as tested by
2160-628: Was a Japanese aerospace manufacturer which produced several designs for the Imperial Japanese Navy . After the war, the company was reorganized as Aichi Machine Industry Co., Ltd (愛知機械工業) where they made small kei cars until 1966 when they were integrated into Nissan and developed the Nissan Sunny and Nissan Vanette . The company was established in 1898 in Nagoya as Aichi Tokei Denki Seizo Kabushiki Kaisha (Aichi Watch and Electric Manufacturing Co., Ltd.). Aircraft production started in 1920 , and
2208-436: Was also applied in addition to the limit on engine size, in response to the ever-increasing power outputs available with turbocharging and multivalve technologies popularized in the late 1980s. Engine technology was also shared with sports bikes , which are designed more for rider enjoyment and less so for fuel economy, going against the idea of small people's cars and putting the kei cars' tax and structural advantages at risk of
2256-627: Was increased to 550 cc, taking effect from 1 January 1976. The new standards were announced on 26 August 1975, leaving very little time for manufacturers to revise their designs to take advantage of the new limits. Most manufacturers were somewhat surprised by the decision; having expected a 500 cc (30.5 cu in) limit, they had already developed new engines to fit such restrictions. These new engines were quickly introduced, usually mounted within widened bodies of existing models. These interim versions, with displacements ranging between 443 and 490 cc, were "feelers", developed to see if
2304-457: Was really intended for private use, thus avoiding the 15.5% excise tax . Efficient, bare bones design meant that the resulting Suzuki Alto was considerably cheaper than any of its competitors, and it set the tone for kei cars for the entire 1980s. Until the excise tax was abolished in 1989, light commercials like the Alto and its competitors nearly completely supplanted the passenger car versions. As
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