111-465: Aggression is a behavior aimed at opposing or attacking something or someone. Though often done with the intent to cause harm, it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some. It may occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various triggers. For example, built-up frustration due to blocked goals or perceived disrespect. Human aggression can be classified into direct and indirect aggression; while
222-512: A buffer against some psychological problems, for which these people are at risk (see consequences of victimization below). In comparison to all other groups, bully-victims are the worst off regarding their psychological adjustment and problems. They are least liked among the peers. A bystander is a person who observes a prejudiced attack towards another person and chooses to ignore it. Although early research has mostly focused on victims and bullies, currently more and more attention has been given to
333-509: A group and the male faces an intermediate number of challenges from other males compared to exclusive polygyny and monogamy but frequent sperm competition . Evolutionary psychology and sociobiology have also discussed and produced theories for some specific forms of male aggression such as sociobiological theories of rape and theories regarding the Cinderella effect . Another evolutionary theory explaining gender differences in aggression
444-482: A group. Sometimes aggression is directed to an individual rather than to any apparent social group. Primary reasons for victimization include looks and speech; adolescents are also frequently bullied because of a disability, particular ethnicity, or religion. Relational aggression is defined as a type of aggression that is "intended to harm others through deliberate manipulation of their social standing and relationships". Relational aggression, according to Daniel Olweus
555-492: A higher rate in females. Females will seem more desirable to their mate if they fit in with society and females that are aggressive do not usually fit well in society. They can often be viewed as antisocial. Female aggression is not considered the norm in society and going against the norm can sometimes prevent one from getting a mate. However, studies have shown that an increasing number of women are getting arrested on domestic violence charges. In many states, women now account for
666-452: A lack of moral compassion. In general, bullies seem to engage in a kind of cold cognition and have a good theory of mind. They also have an average to good social intelligence. These skills seem to be especially important in order to use relational aggression in an instrumental manner—for achieving specific social goals. As mentioned previously, male and female bullies usually score differently on sociometric measures. Male bullies often fall in
777-492: A longitudinal study, Dan Olweus (2003) found that young adults, who were victims of bullying in adolescence, had more symptoms of depression and lower self-esteem than did their non-victimized peers. Victims are also much more likely to engage in heavy smoking later in life. Decreased academic engagement due to victimization can have some long term consequences as victim's lower educational attainment in adulthood leads to lower earnings. There are differences in consequences among
888-448: A male with lower social skills. In females, higher rates of aggression were only correlated with higher rates of stress. Other than biological factors that contribute to aggression there are physical factors as well. Regarding sexual dimorphism, humans fall into an intermediate group with moderate sex differences in body size but relatively large testes . This is a typical pattern of primates where several males and females live together in
999-886: A more direct and common response is a propensity towards aggression. Frustration originates from feelings of uncertainty and insecurity which stems from a sense of inability to fulfill needs. If the needs of an individual are blocked, uneasiness and frustration are more likely to occur. When these needs are constantly ignored or unsatisfied, anger, depression , loss of self-confidence, annoyance, aggression, and sometimes violence are likely to follow. Needs can be blocked two different ways; internally and externally. Internal blocking happens within an individual's mind, either through lack of ability, confidence, conflicting goals and desires, and/or fears. External blocking happens to an individual outside their control such as physical roadblocks, difficult tasks, or perceived waste of time, especially when those roadblocks or challenges were unexpected, or if
1110-448: A number of effects, depending on the mental health of the individual. In positive cases, this frustration will build until a level that is too great for the individual to contain or allow to continue, and thus produce action directed at solving the inherent problem in a disposition that does not cause social or physical harm. In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside their control, and thus
1221-438: A physical roadblock , a difficult task, or the perception of wasting time. There are multiple ways individuals cope with frustration such as passive–aggressive behavior , anger , or violence, although frustration may also propel positive processes via enhanced effort and strive. This broad range of potential outcomes makes it difficult to identify the original cause(s) of frustration, as the responses may be indirect. However,
SECTION 10
#17330932352831332-735: A population, and potentially become 'Evolutionary Stable Strategies'. An initial model of resolution of conflicts is the hawk-dove game . Others include the Sequential assessment model and the Energetic war of attrition . These try to understand not just one-off encounters but protracted stand-offs, and mainly differ in the criteria by which an individual decides to give up rather than risk loss and harm in physical conflict (such as through estimates of resource holding potential ). Gender plays an important role in human aggression. There are multiple theories that seek to explain findings that males and females of
1443-457: A positive correlation with aggression, including when potentiated by alcohol. The hormonal neuropeptides vasopressin and oxytocin play a key role in complex social behaviours in many mammals such as regulating attachment, social recognition, and aggression. Vasopressin has been implicated in male-typical social behaviors which includes aggression. Oxytocin may have a particular role in regulating female bonds with offspring and mates, including
1554-492: A predator has the appearance of a harmless organism or object attractive to the prey; when the prey approaches, the predator attacks. An animal defending against a predator may engage in either " fight or flight " or " tend and befriend " in response to predator attack or threat of attack, depending on its estimate of the predator's strength relative to its own. Alternative defenses include a range of antipredator adaptations , including alarm signals . An example of an alarm signal
1665-423: A predator may release nerol to attract nestmates, who will proceed to attack or bite the predator. Aggression between groups is determined partly by willingness to fight, which depends on a number of factors including numerical advantage, distance from home territories, how often the groups encounter each other, competitive abilities, differences in body size, and whose territory is being invaded. Also, an individual
1776-430: A product of evolution through natural selection, part of genetics, a product of hormonal fluctuations. Psychological approaches conceptualize aggression as a destructive instinct, a response to frustration, an affect excited by a negative stimulus, a result of observed learning of society and diversified reinforcement, a resultant of variables that affect personal and situational environments. The term aggression comes from
1887-405: A quarter to a third of all domestic violence arrests, up from less than 10 percent a decade ago. The new statistics reflect a reality documented in research: women are perpetrators as well as victims of family violence. However, another equally possible explanation is a case of improved diagnostics: it has become more acceptable for men to report female domestic violence to the authorities while at
1998-462: A relationship between the modified challenge hypothesis and human behavior, or the human nature of concealed ovulation , although some suggest it may apply. Another line of research has focused on the proximate effects of circulating testosterone on the nervous system, as mediated by local metabolism within the brain. Testosterone can be metabolized to estradiol by the enzyme aromatase , or to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by 5α-reductase . Aromatase
2109-471: A result of one's poor social skills and maladjustment, difficulty making friends, and regular experience of aggression can also be a cause of many short and long term negative consequences on one's mental health and academic and professional achievements. Experience of relational aggression, peer rejection, and unpopularity are shown to be linked to various problems in adolescence, which are listed below: Some negative effects persist into adulthood. In
2220-491: A specific interaction between gender, frequency, and type of aggression. Relational or indirect aggression was found to be associated with depression and suicidal ideation among both genders. According to Brustein and Klomek (2007), victimization at any frequency increased the risk of depression, ideation, and attempts among girls, while only frequent victimization increased the risk of depression and ideation among males; yet, Katliala-Heino et al. (1999) found that severe ideation
2331-924: A stress relief or a subjective feeling of power." Predatory or defensive behavior between members of different species may not be considered aggression in the same sense. Aggression can take a variety of forms, which may be expressed physically, or communicated verbally or non-verbally: including anti-predator aggression, defensive aggression (fear-induced), predatory aggression, dominance aggression, inter-male aggression, resident-intruder aggression, maternal aggression, species-specific aggression, sex-related aggression, territorial aggression, isolation-induced aggression, irritable aggression, and brain-stimulation-induced aggression (hypothalamus). There are two subtypes of human aggression: (1) controlled-instrumental subtype (purposeful or goal-oriented); and (2) reactive-impulsive subtype (often elicits uncontrollable actions that are inappropriate or undesirable). Aggression differs from what
SECTION 20
#17330932352832442-439: A study by Horn found that girls are more likely to say that it is morally wrong to exclude someone based on their crowd membership. Some research shows that there are certain implications when boys and girls engage in gender-atypical aggression, as girls who are more physically aggressive or boys who are highly relationally aggressive are more maladjusted than their peers. Sociometric status , commonly referred as popularity ,
2553-655: A type of relational aggression. Most recent research has been focusing on cyberbullying , which is a relatively new yet increasingly popular way of engaging in both verbal and relational aggression due to growing importance of various communication and technology devices in modern societies. Some studies show that internet meanness is more common among girls than boys. Many studies in the U.S. and Europe show that at least 30% of students report having been bullied in one or another way. Some studies indicate even higher percentages of victimization. Bullying in schools happens in all forms and at various ages, although peer bullying has
2664-415: A unique social identity and status can be one of the causes to engage in bullying. Using relational aggression to maintain a particular social order inside the group has been mostly observed in girl groups: if some member of the group becomes too popular and this causes imbalance in the group, other members might start rumors about the overly popular girl to diminish her status. Amanda Rose (2004) claims that
2775-424: A victim's clothing, appearance, or personality, whereas boys engage in aggression that involves a direct physical and/or verbal assault. This could be due to the fact that girls' frontal lobes develop earlier than boys, allowing them to self-restrain. One factor that shows insignificant differences between male and female aggression is in sports. In sports, the rate of aggression in both contact and non-contact sports
2886-476: Is a response to provocation, and the other includes instrumental, goal-oriented or predatory , in which aggression is used as a means to achieve a goal. An example of hostile aggression would be a person who punches someone who insulted him or her. An instrumental form of aggression would be armed robbery . Research on violence from a range of disciplines lend some support to a distinction between affective and predatory aggression. However, some researchers question
2997-491: Is a type of aggression in which harm is caused by damaging someone's relationships or social status . Although it can be used in many contexts and among different age groups , relational aggression among adolescents in particular, has received a lot of attention. The attention relational aggression has received has been augmented by the help of popular media, including movies like Mean Girls and books like Odd Girl Out by Rachel Simmons (2002), Nesthäkchen and
3108-724: Is a type of bullying . Bullying in general, is defined as physically or psychologically violent re-occurring and not provoked acts, where the bully and victim have unequal physical strength or psychological power. These key conditions apply to all types of bullying: verbal , physical and relational. Relational aggression may be either covert or direct, and is distinct from other forms of indirect aggression. It can be proactive (planned and goal-oriented) or reactive (in response to perceived threats, hostility, or anger), and it can be, for instance, peer-directed or romantic. Several studies have indicated substantive differences between proactive and reactive relational aggression. Reactive aggression
3219-567: Is associated with a tendency to assume that others' intentions are hostile ( hostile attribution bias ). Most studies of relational aggression have involved children or adolescents; the study of relational aggression in adults presents problems. Relational aggression is a common aspect of workplace bullying , and is a characteristic behaviour of psychopaths in the workplace , so it is commonplace amongst adults as well as children. Manifestations of relational aggression include: Psychological manipulation and coercion can also be considered as
3330-415: Is caused by an inconsistency between a desired, or expected, situation and the actually perceived situation (e.g., " frustration "), and functions to forcefully manipulate the perception into matching the expected situation. In this approach, when the inconsistency between perception and expectancy is small, learning as a result of curiosity reduces inconsistency by updating expectancy to match perception. If
3441-517: Is common among all these individuals across both genders is low level of empathy. Victim-defenders are individuals who stand up for the victim. They are usually popular among their peers, although occasionally rejected and victimized adolescents take on the defender's role. Defenders like to befriend other defenders and usually belong to the smallest social network of all other previously mentioned groups. Defenders have both advanced moral competence and high level of compassion. They also score high on
Aggression - Misplaced Pages Continue
3552-424: Is commonly called assertiveness , although the terms are often used interchangeably among laypeople (as in phrases such as "an aggressive salesperson"). Dollard et al. (1939) proposed that aggression was due to frustration , which was described as an unpleasant emotion resulting from any interference with achieving a rewarding goal. Berkowitz extended this frustration–aggression hypothesis and proposed that it
3663-471: Is described as "tough" and such adolescents are "aggressive, physically competent, and average or below average in friendliness, academic competence, and shyness." Usually the more popular aggressive adolescents use instrumental aggression and not reactive aggression. Instrumental aggression is defined as behavior that is deliberate and planned while reactive aggression is unplanned and impulsive. Relational aggression can be greatly instrumental for maintaining
3774-599: Is highly expressed in regions involved in the regulation of aggressive behavior, such as the amygdala and hypothalamus. In studies using genetic knockout techniques in inbred mice, male mice that lacked a functional aromatase enzyme displayed a marked reduction in aggression. Long-term treatment with estradiol partially restored aggressive behavior, suggesting that the neural conversion of circulating testosterone to estradiol and its effect on estrogen receptors influences inter-male aggression. In addition, two different estrogen receptors, ERα and ERβ , have been identified as having
3885-563: Is intended or not; whether it is carried out actively or expressed passively; and whether the aggression is aimed directly or indirectly. Classification may also encompass aggression-related emotions (e.g., anger ) and mental states (e.g., impulsivity , hostility ). Aggression may occur in response to non-social as well as social factors, and can have a close relationship with stress coping style. Aggression may be displayed in order to intimidate . The operative definition of aggression may be affected by moral or political views. Examples are
3996-483: Is intended to increase the social dominance of the organism relative to the dominance position of other organisms". Losing confrontations may be called social defeat , and winning or losing is associated with a range of practical and psychological consequences. Conflicts between animals occur in many contexts, such as between potential mating partners, between parents and offspring, between siblings and between competitors for resources. Group-living animals may dispute over
4107-597: Is more common among boys and indirect aggression is more common among girls. In another study by Baldry it was found that boys are more likely to engage in bullying behaviors such as threats, physical harm, rejection, and name-calling, while girls are most likely to use name-calling, teasing, rumors, rejection, and taking personal belongings. Based on these findings, girls do seem to use relational aggression more than boys. In addition, recent international research shows that both genders tend to use relational aggression, but girls are more aware and distressed by it. For example,
4218-454: Is more likely to become aggressive if other aggressive group members are nearby. One particular phenomenon – the formation of coordinated coalitions that raid neighbouring territories to kill conspecifics – has only been documented in two species in the animal kingdom: 'common' chimpanzees and humans . Aggression between conspecifics in a group typically involves access to resources and breeding opportunities. One of its most common functions
4329-478: Is most obviously the case in terms of attacking prey to obtain food, or in anti-predatory defense. It may also be the case in competition between members of the same species or subgroup, if the average reward (e.g., status, access to resources, protection of self or kin) outweighs average costs (e.g., injury, exclusion from the group, death). There are some hypotheses of specific adaptions for violence in humans under certain circumstances, including for homicide , but it
4440-425: Is nerol, a chemical which is found in the mandibular glands of Trigona fulviventris individuals. Release of nerol by T. fulviventris individuals in the nest has been shown to decrease the number of individuals leaving the nest by fifty percent, as well as increasing aggressive behaviors like biting. Alarm signals like nerol can also act as attraction signals; in T. fulviventris, individuals that have been captured by
4551-466: Is not so much the frustration as the unpleasant emotion that evokes aggressive tendencies, and that all aversive events produce negative affect and thereby aggressive tendencies, as well as fear tendencies. Besides conditioned stimuli, Archer categorized aggression-evoking (as well as fear-evoking) stimuli into three groups; namely, pain , novelty , and frustration, although he also described " looming ", which refers to an object rapidly moving towards
Aggression - Misplaced Pages Continue
4662-839: Is not their physical but relational aggression. Research shows that there are three types of rejected or unpopular adolescents who are very likely to be involved in bullying behavior. First type includes adolescents who are overly aggressive: they tend to get into fights, get involved in antisocial activities, and are often involved in bullying; second type includes adolescents who are withdrawn or timid and exceedingly shy and inhibited and who are more likely to be victims; third aggressive-withdrawn-type adolescents tend to have trouble controlling their hostility, but they are also very shy and nervous about initiating friendships. The latter are likely to be bully-victims. Other students- bystanders can also choose between several roles: victim-defender, bully-reinforcer or assistant, and outsiders. Victims or
4773-438: Is often unclear what behaviors may have been selected for and what may have been a byproduct, as in the case of collective violence. Although aggressive encounters are ubiquitous in the animal kingdom, with often high stakes, most encounters that involve aggression may be resolved through posturing, or displaying and trial of strength. Game theory is used to understand how such behaviors might spread by natural selection within
4884-502: Is one of the most significant predictors of victimization or bullying as differences in popularity can be associated with differences in social power. It is commonly believed that aggressive adolescents belong to rejected social groups. However, some research shows that they can be popular among their peers. Rodkin et al. (2000), for example, describes two types of popular boys: "model" boys, who are "physically and academically competent, friendly and neither shy nor aggressive." Second type
4995-553: Is related to trait anger and a higher level of frustration tolerance is related to lower levels of anger and longer persistence on difficult tasks. For example, a child with a high frustration tolerance may be able to deal with repeated challenges and failures without experiencing significant frustration. The child with a low frustration tolerance can be quick to experience frustration when asked to perform tasks of moderate difficulty. Relational aggression Relational aggression , alternative aggression , or relational bullying
5106-597: Is relatively equal. Since the establishment of Title IX, female sports have increased in competitiveness and importance, which could contribute to the evening of aggression and the "need to win" attitude between both genders. Among sex differences found in adult sports were that females have a higher scale of indirect hostility while men have a higher scale of assault. Another difference found is that men have up to 20 times higher levels of testosterone than women. Some studies suggest that romantic involvement in adolescence decreases aggression in males and females, but decreases at
5217-492: Is that observed in the interaction between a predator and its prey . However, according to many researchers, predation is not aggression. A cat does not hiss or arch its back when pursuing a rat, and the active areas in its hypothalamus resemble those that reflect hunger rather than those that reflect aggression. However, others refer to this behavior as predatory aggression, and point out cases that resemble hostile behavior, such as mouse-killing by rats. In aggressive mimicry
5328-500: Is the Male Warrior hypothesis , which explains that males have psychologically evolved for intergroup aggression in order to gain access to mates, resources, territory and status. Many researchers focus on the brain to explain aggression. Numerous circuits within both neocortical and subcortical structures play a central role in controlling aggressive behavior, depending on the species, and the exact role of pathways may vary depending on
5439-426: Is to establish a dominance hierarchy . This occurs in many species by aggressive encounters between contending males when they are first together in a common environment. Usually the more aggressive animals become the more dominant. In test situations, most of the conspecific aggression ceases about 24 hours after the group of animals is brought together. Aggression has been defined from this viewpoint as "behavior which
5550-518: The Latin word aggressio , meaning attack. The Latin was itself a joining of ad - and gradi -, which meant step at. The first known use dates back to 1611, in the sense of an unprovoked attack. A psychological sense of "hostile or destructive behavior" dates back to a 1912 English translation of Sigmund Freud 's writing. Alfred Adler theorized about an "aggressive drive" in 1908. Child raising experts began to refer to aggression, rather than anger, from
5661-855: The Oxford Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology which reviewed past analysis which found men to use more verbal and physical aggression with the difference being greater in the physical type. There are more recent findings that show that differences in male and female aggression appear at about two years of age, though the differences in aggression are more consistent in middle-aged children and adolescence. Tremblay, Japel and Pérusse (1999) asserted that physically aggressive behaviors such as kicking, biting and hitting are age-typical expressions of innate and spontaneous reactions to biological drives such as anger, hunger, and affiliation. Girls' relational aggression , meaning non-physical or indirect, tends to increase after age two while physical aggression decreases. There
SECTION 50
#17330932352835772-419: The male warrior hypothesis , intergroup aggression represents an opportunity for men to gain access to mates, territory, resources and increased status. As such, conflicts may have created selection evolutionary pressures for psychological mechanisms in men to initiate intergroup aggression. Aggression can involve violence that may be adaptive under certain circumstances in terms of natural selection . This
5883-489: The 1930s. Ethologists study aggression as it relates to the interaction and evolution of animals in natural settings. In such settings aggression can involve bodily contact such as biting, hitting or pushing, but most conflicts are settled by threat displays and intimidating thrusts that cause no physical harm. This form of aggression may include the display of body size, antlers, claws or teeth; stereotyped signals including facial expressions; vocalizations such as bird song;
5994-613: The World War by Else Ury (1916), and Queen Bees and Wannabes by R. Wiseman (2003). Relational aggression can have various lifelong consequences . Relational aggression has been primarily observed and studied among girls, following pioneering research by psychologist Nicki R. Crick . A person's peers become increasingly significant in adolescence and are especially important for adolescents' healthy psychological development. Peers provide many new behavioral models and feedback that are essential for successful identity formation and for
6105-478: The ability to exert different effects on aggression in mice. However, the effect of estradiol appears to vary depending on the strain of mouse, and in some strains it reduces aggression during long days (16 h of light), while during short days (8 h of light) estradiol rapidly increases aggression. Frustration In psychology, frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger , annoyance and disappointment . Frustration arises from
6216-515: The amygdala is less clear in primates and appears to depend more on situational context, with lesions leading to increases in either social affiliatory or aggressive responses. Amygdalotomy , which involves removing or destroying parts of the amygdala, has been performed on people to reduce their violent behaviour. The broad area of the cortex known as the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is crucial for self-control and inhibition of impulses, including inhibition of aggression and emotions. Reduced activity of
6327-709: The application of evolutionary explanations to contemporary human behavior, including differences between the genders. According to the 2015 International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences , sex differences in aggression is one of the most robust and oldest findings in psychology. Past meta-analyses in the encyclopedia found males regardless of age engaged in more physical and verbal aggression while small effect for females engaging in more indirect aggression such as rumor spreading or gossiping. It also found males tend to engage in more unprovoked aggression at higher frequency than females. This analysis also conforms with
6438-604: The axiomatic moral view called the non-aggression principle and the political rules governing the behavior of one country toward another. Likewise in competitive sports , or in the workplace , some forms of aggression may be sanctioned and others not (see Workplace aggression ). Aggressive behaviors are associated with adjustment problems and several psychopathological symptoms such as antisocial personality disorder , borderline personality disorder , and intermittent explosive disorder . Biological approaches conceptualize aggression as an internal energy released by external stimuli,
6549-645: The best predictor for whether an adolescent will choose to be a defender or an outsider in a particular situation is their relationship to the victim or bully. Occasionally, adolescents will feel more comfortable to intervene if they are friends of the offender. However, in general they will take the side of the bully or victim based on who they know better. Bullies are more likely to be friends of other bullies, as well as their reinforcers, and assistants, while victims befriend other victims. There are serious negative consequences associated with being involved in any aggressive behaviors. And while problems with peers might be
6660-467: The bully. They often have rather large friendship networks when compared to outsiders, victims, and their defenders. These individuals are similar to bullies in regards of their personal characteristics. Female bully-reinforcers and assistants usually score low on social acceptance and high on rejection by their peers while male bully assistants have average scores on both and bully-reinforcers are often quite popular among their peers. The characteristic that
6771-562: The children who are rejected and aggressive, also known as bully-victims , and children who are rejected and withdrawn, also referred to as simply victims . Aggressive individuals often have conduct problems and are involved in antisocial activity . Withdrawn children feel exceedingly lonely, at risk of low self-esteem, depression, and diminished social competence. Adolescents who are both aggressive and withdrawn are at greatest risk for various mental and behavioral problems. Although victims respond to bullying in various ways, some of
SECTION 60
#17330932352836882-539: The classroom. Teacher attitudes towards bullying were found to moderate the extent to which victims internalize and feel distressed and express it by avoiding school and similar behavior. Close teacher-student relationship moderates perceived safety in the classroom, and higher perceived safety is directly linked to better classroom concentration and improved coping strategies. Therefore, supportive friends, family, and teachers can be great buffers for victimized students against all negative effects of victimization. Witnessing
6993-665: The context and other factors such as gender. A deficit in serotonin has been theorized to have a primary role in causing impulsivity and aggression. At least one epigenetic study supports this supposition. Nevertheless, low levels of serotonin transmission may explain a vulnerability to impulsiveness, potential aggression, and may have an effect through interactions with other neurochemical systems. These include dopamine systems which are generally associated with attention and motivation toward rewards, and operate at various levels. Norepinephrine , also known as noradrenaline, may influence aggression responses both directly and indirectly through
7104-419: The developing brains of both males and females, making more neural circuits that control sexual behavior as well as intermale and interfemale aggression become more sensitive to testosterone. There are noticeable sex differences in aggression. Testosterone is present to a lesser extent in females, who may be more sensitive to its effects. Animal studies have also indicated a link between incidents of aggression and
7215-1040: The development of one's sense of self. Interactions with peers encourage positive practice of autonomy and independent decision-making skills. They are also essential for healthy sexual development including the development of the capacity for intimate friendships and learning appropriate sexual behavior. Peer relationships are also very important for determining how much adolescents value school, how much effort they put into it, and how well they perform in class. However, quite frequently adolescents take part in peer relationships that are harmful for their psychological development. Adolescents tend to form various cliques and belong to different crowds based on their activity interests, music and clothing preferences, as well as their cultural or ethnic background. Such groups differ in their sociometric or popularity status, which often create unhealthy, aggression-victimization based dynamics between groups. Different forms of aggression can also be used to control dynamics and sociometric status within
7326-420: The direction of travel or the allocation of time to joint activities. Various factors limit the escalation of aggression, including communicative displays, conventions, and routines. In addition, following aggressive incidents, various forms of conflict resolution have been observed in mammalian species, particularly in gregarious primates. These can mitigate or repair possible adverse consequences, especially for
7437-553: The dynamic relationship between plasma testosterone levels and aggression in mating contexts in many species. It proposes that testosterone is linked to aggression when it is beneficial for reproduction, such as in mate guarding and preventing the encroachment of intrasexual rivals. The challenge hypothesis predicts that seasonal patterns in testosterone levels in a species are a function of mating system (monogamy versus polygyny), paternal care, and male-male aggression in seasonal breeders . This pattern between testosterone and aggression
7548-408: The female can leave the male to care for the offspring, then females may be the larger and more physically aggressive. Competitiveness despite parental investment has also been observed in some species. A related factor is the rate at which males and females are able to mate again after producing offspring, and the basic principles of sexual selection are also influenced by ecological factors affecting
7659-418: The former is characterized by physical or verbal behavior intended to cause harm to someone, the latter is characterized by behavior intended to harm the social relations of an individual or group. In definitions commonly used in the social sciences and behavioral sciences , aggression is an action or response by an individual that delivers something unpleasant to another person. Some definitions include that
7770-488: The frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further problematic behavior (e.g. violent reaction against perceived oppressors or enemies). Stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as removal or modification of the barrier, sometimes occurs. As pointed out by J.A.C. Brown , severe punishment may cause individuals to continue non-adaptive behavior blindly: "Either it may have an effect opposite to that of reward and as such, discourage
7881-611: The harassment of others can also reduce some harmful effects of being victimized: victims-only feel more humiliated and angry than victims-witnesses on the same day. Being singled out and picked on feels worse than being one of many victimized students. This explains why in ethnically diverse schools victimized students experience worse psychological outcomes when their ethnic group is in majority, because then they are more likely to attribute it to their personal shortcomings and not to their group membership. There are many prevention programs, which have been designed to improve social skills of
7992-404: The healthier/more vigorous animal. Aggression may also occur for self-protection or to protect offspring. Aggression between groups of animals may also confer advantage; for example, hostile behavior may force a population of animals into a new territory, where the need to adapt to a new environment may lead to an increase in genetic flexibility. The most apparent type of interspecific aggression
8103-414: The highest prevalence in 6th–8th grades. The most common forms of bullying are verbal with relational, or various forms of ostracism, coming in second. Although it can be used by both genders, relational aggression is more commonly associated with girls. Findings of a study by Rivers and Smith have shown that while verbal aggression occurs with similar frequency in both sexes, direct physical aggression
8214-425: The hormonal system, the sympathetic nervous system or the central nervous system (including the brain). It appears to have different effects depending on the type of triggering stimulus, for example social isolation/rank versus shock/chemical agitation which appears not to have a linear relationship with aggression. Similarly, GABA , although associated with inhibitory functions at many CNS synapses, sometimes shows
8325-435: The inconsistency is larger, fear or aggressive behavior may be employed to alter the perception in order to make it match expectancy, depending on the size of the inconsistency as well as the specific context. Uninhibited fear results in fleeing, thereby removing the inconsistent stimulus from the perceptual field and resolving the inconsistency. In some cases thwarted escape may trigger aggressive behavior in an attempt to remove
8436-404: The individual expected the goal to be easy to accomplish. Frustration is usually less when an individual expected, or knew beforehand, that the goal would be "challenging." Some people are predisposed towards feelings of frustration, indexed in terms of temperament in childhood, and neuroticism in adulthood. Frustration can be classed as a mental health problem–response behavior and can have
8547-430: The individual level of circulating testosterone. However, results in relation to primates, particularly humans, are less clear cut and are at best only suggestive of a positive association in some contexts. In humans, there is a seasonal variation in aggression associated with changes in testosterone. For example, in some primate species, such as rhesus monkeys and baboons, females are more likely to engage in fights around
8658-503: The individual must intend to harm another person. In an interdisciplinary perspective, aggression is regarded as "an ensemble of mechanism formed during the course of evolution in order to assert oneself, relatives, or friends against others, to gain or to defend resources (ultimate causes) by harmful damaging means. These mechanisms are often motivated by emotions like fear, frustration, anger, feelings of stress, dominance or pleasure (proximate causes). Sometimes aggressive behavior serves as
8769-428: The lizard greatly reduce competitive drive and aggression (Bauman et al. 2006). In rhesus monkeys , neonatal lesions in the amygdala or hippocampus results in reduced expression of social dominance, related to the regulation of aggression and fear. Several experiments in attack-primed Syrian golden hamsters, for example, support the claim of circuitry within the amygdala being involved in control of aggression. The role of
8880-477: The main purpose of using relational aggression in first place is to enhance or maintain one's social status. Many skills that are needed to be popular are also essential for being "successful" at employing relational aggression, e.g. ability to "read" people and adjust one's behavior accordingly, etc. The researcher suggests that some aggressive boys are popular because they are also good at using relational aggression, and, therefore, their primary reason for popularity
8991-580: The most common ways include avoidance or escape behaviors, such as not going to school and running away from home. However, in some extreme cases, suicide attempts might occur. Compared to non-victims, victims exhibit increased levels of suicidal ideation . and are more likely to have attempted suicide. Researcher Y.S. Kim (2005) found that there are some gender differences as victimized female but not male students were at significantly greater risk for suicidal ideation. Further research has shown that increased risk for suicidal ideation and attempts depend on
9102-408: The other gender being constrained by providing greater parental investment , in terms of factors such as gamete production, gestation , lactation , or upbringing of young. Although there is much variation in species, generally the more physically aggressive sex is the male, particularly in mammals. In species where parental care by both sexes is required, there tends to be less of a difference. When
9213-707: The perceived resistance to the fulfillment of an individual's will or goal and is likely to increase when a will or goal is denied or blocked. There are two types of frustration: internal and external. Internal frustration may arise from challenges in fulfilling personal goals , desires , instinctual drives and needs, or dealing with perceived deficiencies , such as a lack of confidence or fear of social situations. Conflict , such as when one has competing goals that interfere with one another, can also be an internal source of frustration or annoyance and can create cognitive dissonance . External causes of frustration involve conditions outside an individual's control, such as
9324-421: The physical or social environment; this depends on the species and individual factors such as gender, age and background (e.g., raised wild or captive). Within ethology, it has long been recognized that there is a relation between aggression, fear , and curiosity . A cognitive approach to this relationship puts aggression in the broader context of inconsistency reduction , and proposes that aggressive behavior
9435-405: The popularity status of a group among other groups, as well as specific relationship and status dynamics inside a group. Ojala and Nesdale (2004) found that both victims and bullies normally come from rejected groups. Bullies choose to bully students who are members of their social out-groups that are similar to their own in-group as a result of threatened distinctiveness. Hence, the need to maintain
9546-400: The prefrontal cortex, in particular its medial and orbitofrontal portions, has been associated with violent/antisocial aggression. In addition, reduced response inhibition has been found in violent offenders, compared to non-violent offenders. The role of the chemicals in the brain, particularly neurotransmitters , in aggression has also been examined. This varies depending on the pathway,
9657-430: The premises that they become more docile and less aggressive during an athletic event. The circumstances in which males and females experience aggression are also different. A study showed that social anxiety and stress was positively correlated with aggression in males, meaning as stress and social anxiety increases so does aggression. Furthermore, a male with higher social skills has a lower rate of aggressive behavior than
9768-425: The recipient of aggression who may become vulnerable to attacks by other members of a group. Conciliatory acts vary by species and may involve specific gestures or simply more proximity and interaction between the individuals involved. However, conflicts over food are rarely followed by post conflict reunions, even though they are the most frequent type in foraging primates. Other questions that have been considered in
9879-404: The release of chemicals; and changes in coloration. The term agonistic behaviour is sometimes used to refer to these forms of behavior. Most ethologists believe that aggression confers biological advantages. Aggression may help an animal secure territory , including resources such as food and water. Aggression between males often occurs to secure mating opportunities, and results in selection of
9990-405: The repetition of the act, or, by functioning as a frustrating agent, it may lead to fixation and the other symptoms of frustration as well. It follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the opposite of those desired". Frustration tolerance is one's ability to resist becoming frustrated when facing difficult tasks. Having a low frustration tolerance
10101-479: The roles of other students, or bystanders: bully-reinforcer's and assistants, victim-defenders, and outsiders. Bullying is something that occurs when there is an audience and some even assume that bullying would completely stop if no one was watching. Bystanders are a lot more likely to help when they know the victim or the victim is a woman. Bully-reinforcers and assistants do not normally initiate aggressive actions themselves, but they support, reinforce, and assist
10212-408: The same species can have differing aggressive behaviors. One review concluded that male aggression tended to produce pain or physical injury whereas female aggression tended towards psychological or social harm. In general, sexual dimorphism can be attributed to greater intraspecific competition in one sex, either between rivals for access to mates and/or to be chosen by mates . This may stem from
10323-481: The same time actual female domestic violence has not increased at all. This could be the case in a situation where men had become less ashamed of reporting female violence against them — such a situation could conceivably lead to an increasing number of women being arrested despite the actual number of violent women remaining the same. In addition, males in competitive sports are often advised by their coaches not to be in intimate relationships based on
10434-630: The socially rejected category while female bullies tend to fall in the controversial category. They can be popular yet not liked. Many unpopular aggressive kids seem to engage in hostile attributional bias when analyzing the actions of others: they are more likely to interpret other children's behavior as hostile while it is not, which can cause the perpetuation of their aggressive behaviors. Bully-victims are people who have both experienced aggression directed towards them and have themselves engaged in bullying . They often choose to be bully assistants or reinforcers . Seeing others victimized can serve as
10545-445: The study of primate aggression, including in humans, is how aggression affects the organization of a group, what costs are incurred by aggression, and why some primates avoid aggressive behavior. For example, bonobo chimpanzee groups are known for low levels of aggression within a partially matriarchal society. Captive animals including primates may show abnormal levels of social aggression and self-harm that are related to aspects of
10656-770: The tests of moral competence and theory of mind . Moral competence refers to the ability to carefully consider both the consequences and prior beliefs in determining how morally right or wrong one's actions are. Victims seemed to focus primarily on the outcomes and not being as good in integrating the moral beliefs. They have difficulties in social skills, and social problem solving, as well as emotional regulation. And because of their lack of social competence, victims score low on peer acceptance and popularity. Victims are often overly sensitive to being rejected, which might originate in their relationships with parents. Bullies, despite being quite morally competent, tend to engage in morally wrong behaviors because of several reasons, including
10767-477: The theory of mind tests. They are usually very morally engaged, have a high sense of responsibility, and self-efficacy. They are also good at emotion regulation. Outsiders are adolescents who like to stay away from the conflict situations, participate in spreading rumors, or actively support either side. They usually befriend other outsiders. Both male and female outsiders usually score below average on both social acceptance and rejection by their peers. In general,
10878-411: The thwarting stimulus. Like many behaviors, aggression can be examined in terms of its ability to help an animal itself survive and reproduce, or alternatively to risk survival and reproduction. This cost–benefit analysis can be looked at in terms of evolution . However, there are profound differences in the extent of acceptance of a biological or evolutionary basis for human aggression. According to
10989-520: The time of ovulation as well as right before menstruation. If the results were the same in humans as they are in rhesus monkeys and baboons, then the increase in aggressive behaviors during ovulation is explained by the decline in estrogen levels. This makes normal testosterone levels more effective. Castrated mice and rats exhibit lower levels of aggression. Males castrated as neonates exhibit low levels of aggression even when given testosterone throughout their development. The challenge hypothesis outlines
11100-592: The type of trigger or intention. In mammals, the hypothalamus and periaqueductal gray of the midbrain are critical areas, as shown in studies on cats, rats, and monkeys. These brain areas control the expression of both behavioral and autonomic components of aggression in these species, including vocalization. Electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus causes aggressive behavior and the hypothalamus has receptors that help determine aggression levels based on their interactions with serotonin and vasopressin. In rodents, activation of estrogen receptor -expressing neurons in
11211-415: The unpopular and victimized adolescents. Prevention programs usually focus on one of the three strategies: Different types of programs have shown to have somewhat different effects: the first type seems to best improve adolescent's ability to get along with others while the second type has shown to improve adolescents' self-conceptions and their acceptance by others. One of the examples of the programs using
11322-523: The unpopular withdrawn children are excessively anxious, lack social skills needed to initiate new contacts or break into a group activity. Their lack of confidence combined with submissiveness make them perfect targets for bullying. Some of the most common underlying reasons for bullying include low socioeconomic status, disability, and obesity. Research shows that in comparison with other adolescents victims often use worse problem solving strategies. They often score less than their bullies and defenders in
11433-431: The use of physical aggression. At the same time no consistent sex differences emerged within relational aggression. It has been found that girls are more likely than boys to use reactive aggression and then retract, but boys are more likely to increase rather than to retract their aggression after their first reaction. Studies show girls' aggressive tactics included gossip , ostracism , breaking confidences, and criticism of
11544-490: The use of protective aggression. Initial studies in humans suggest some similar effects. In human, aggressive behavior has been associated with abnormalities in three principal regulatory systems in the body serotonin systems , catecholamine systems , and the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis . Abnormalities in these systems also are known to be induced by stress , either severe, acute stress or chronic low-grade stress Early androgenization has an organizational effect on
11655-459: The usefulness of a hostile versus instrumental distinction in humans, despite its ubiquity in research, because most real-life cases involve mixed motives and interacting causes. A number of classifications and dimensions of aggression have been suggested. These depend on such things as whether the aggression is verbal or physical; whether or not it involves relational aggression such as covert bullying and social manipulation; whether harm to others
11766-479: The ventrolateral portion of the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMHvl) was found to be sufficient to initiate aggression in both males and females. Midbrain areas involved in aggression have direct connections with both the brainstem nuclei controlling these functions, and with structures such as the amygdala and prefrontal cortex . Stimulation of the amygdala results in augmented aggressive behavior in hamsters, while lesions of an evolutionarily homologous area in
11877-438: The visual sensors of a subject, and can be categorized as " intensity ." Aggression can have adaptive benefits or negative effects. Aggressive behavior is an individual or collective social interaction that is a hostile behavior with the intention of inflicting damage or harm. Two broad categories of aggression are commonly distinguished. One includes affective (emotional) and hostile, reactive, or retaliatory aggression that
11988-582: The ways or extent to which one sex can compete for the other. The role of such factors in human evolution is controversial. The pattern of male and female aggression is argued to be consistent with evolved sexually-selected behavioral differences, while alternative or complementary views emphasize conventional social roles stemming from physical evolved differences. Aggression in women may have evolved to be, on average, less physically dangerous and more covert or indirect . However, there are critiques for using animal behavior to explain human behavior, especially in
12099-530: Was associated with frequent victimization only among girls. Some adolescents are more resilient to victimization due to their personal characteristics, but there are some environmental factors such as having a best friend or great family support can decrease the risk for many negative consequences associated with victimization. In addition, research shows that support from teachers can be a significant environmental factor for higher academic achievement and school engagement. It can also increase general well-being in
12210-559: Was first observed in seasonally breeding birds, such as the song sparrow , where testosterone levels rise modestly with the onset of the breeding season to support basic reproductive functions. The hypothesis has been subsequently expanded and modified to predict relationships between testosterone and aggression in other species. For example, chimpanzees, which are continuous breeders, show significantly raised testosterone levels and aggressive male-male interactions when receptive and fertile females are present. Currently, no research has specified
12321-493: Was no significant difference in aggression between males and females before two years of age. A possible explanation for this could be that girls develop language skills more quickly than boys, and therefore have better ways of verbalizing their wants and needs. They are more likely to use communication when trying to retrieve a toy with the words "Ask nicely" or "Say please." According to the journal of Aggressive Behaviour , an analysis across 9 countries found boys reported more in
#282717