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69-427: Insoluble in alcohol , dilute acids . Silver chloride is an inorganic chemical compound with the chemical formula Ag Cl . This white crystalline solid is well known for its low solubility in water and its sensitivity to light . Upon illumination or heating, silver chloride converts to silver (and chlorine), which is signaled by grey to black or purplish coloration in some samples. AgCl occurs naturally as

138-561: A blood alcohol concentration of 0.03-0.05 % and induces anesthetic coma at 0.4%. This use carries the high risk of deadly alcohol intoxication , pulmonary aspiration and vomit, which led to use of alternatives in antiquity, such as opium and cannabis , and later diethyl ether, starting in the 1840s. Ethanol is used as an antiseptic in medical wipes and hand sanitizer gels for its bactericidal and anti-fungal effects. Ethanol kills microorganisms by dissolving their membrane lipid bilayer and denaturing their proteins , and

207-414: A hydroxyl group ), which indicates that the carbon of a methyl group (CH 3 −) is attached to the carbon of a methylene group (−CH 2 –), which is attached to the oxygen of a hydroxyl group (−OH). It is a constitutional isomer of dimethyl ether . Ethanol is sometimes abbreviated as EtOH , using the common organic chemistry notation of representing the ethyl group (C 2 H 5 −) with Et . Ethanol

276-431: A monoclinic KOH phase. Then at 11 GPa, it undergoes another phase change to an orthorhombic TlI phase. AgCl dissolves in solutions containing ligands such as chloride , cyanide , triphenylphosphine , thiosulfate , thiocyanate and ammonia . Silver chloride reacts with these ligands according to the following illustrative equations: Of these reactions used to leach silver chloride from silver ores, cyanidation

345-528: A psychoactive depressant , it is the active ingredient in alcoholic beverages , and the second most consumed drug globally behind caffeine . Ethanol is naturally produced by the fermentation process of sugars by yeasts or via petrochemical processes such as ethylene hydration. Historically it was used as a general anesthetic , and has modern medical applications as an antiseptic , disinfectant , solvent for some medications, and antidote for methanol poisoning and ethylene glycol poisoning . It

414-472: A cosmetic, and retained that meaning in Middle Latin . The use of 'alcohol' for ethanol (in full, "alcohol of wine") was first recorded in 1753. Before the late 18th century the term alcohol generally referred to any sublimated substance. Ethanol is the oldest known sedative , used as an oral general anesthetic during surgery in ancient Mesopotamia and in medieval times . Mild intoxication starts at

483-457: A fuel reduces harmful tailpipe emissions of carbon monoxide, particulate matter, oxides of nitrogen , and other ozone-forming pollutants. Argonne National Laboratory analyzed greenhouse gas emissions of many different engine and fuel combinations, and found that biodiesel /petrodiesel blend ( B20 ) showed a reduction of 8%, conventional E85 ethanol blend a reduction of 17% and cellulosic ethanol 64%, compared with pure gasoline. Ethanol has

552-499: A greater concentration of sucrose than corn (by about 30%), but is also much easier to extract. The bagasse generated by the process is not discarded, but burned by power plants to produce electricity. Bagasse burning accounts for around 9% of the electricity produced in Brazil. In the 1970s most industrial ethanol in the U.S. was made as a petrochemical, but in the 1980s the U.S. introduced subsidies for corn-based ethanol . According to

621-502: A method of refining silver, which was done by roasting silver ores with salt to produce silver chloride, which was subsequently decomposed to silver and chlorine. However, it was later identified as a distinct compound of silver in 1565 by Georg Fabricius . Silver chloride, historically known as luna cornea (which could be translated as "horn silver" as the moon was an alchemic codename for silver), has also been an intermediate in other historical silver refining processes. One such example

690-481: A microbial agent can be produced by a metathesis reaction between aqueous silver and chloride ions or can be biogenically synthesized by fungi and plants . Silver chloride's low solubility makes it a useful addition to pottery glazes for the production of "Inglaze lustre ". Silver chloride has been used as an antidote for mercury poisoning , assisting in the elimination of mercury . Other uses of AgCl include: Silver chloride occurs naturally as chlorargyrite in

759-461: A much greater research octane number (RON) than gasoline, meaning it is less prone to pre-ignition, allowing for better ignition advance which means more torque, and efficiency in addition to the lower carbon emissions. Ethanol combustion in an internal combustion engine yields many of the products of incomplete combustion produced by gasoline and significantly larger amounts of formaldehyde and related species such as acetaldehyde. This leads to

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828-509: A post-processing solvent to remove oils, waxes, and chlorophyll from solution in a process known as winterization . Ethanol is found in paints , tinctures, markers, and personal care products such as mouthwashes, perfumes and deodorants. Polysaccharides precipitate from aqueous solution in the presence of alcohol, and ethanol precipitation is used for this reason in the purification of DNA and RNA . Because of its low freezing point of −114 °C (−173 °F) and low toxicity, ethanol

897-416: A significantly larger photochemical reactivity and more ground level ozone . This data has been assembled into The Clean Fuels Report comparison of fuel emissions and show that ethanol exhaust generates 2.14 times as much ozone as gasoline exhaust. When this is added into the custom Localized Pollution Index of The Clean Fuels Report, the local pollution of ethanol (pollution that contributes to smog)

966-400: A solvent is in making tincture of iodine, cough syrups, etc. It is also miscible with light aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as pentane and hexane , and with aliphatic chlorides such as trichloroethane and tetrachloroethylene . Ethanol's miscibility with water contrasts with the immiscibility of longer-chain alcohols (five or more carbon atoms), whose water miscibility decreases sharply as

1035-405: A temperature called its flash point and an ignition source is then applied to it. For 20% alcohol by mass (about 25% by volume), this will occur at about 25 °C (77 °F). The flash point of pure ethanol is 13 °C (55 °F), but may be influenced very slightly by atmospheric composition such as pressure and humidity. Ethanol mixtures can ignite below average room temperature. Ethanol

1104-682: A thin layer of silver chloride. Another famous process that used silver chloride was the gelatin silver process where embedded silver chloride crystals in gelatin were used to produce images. However, with advances in color photography , these methods of black-and-white photography have dwindled. Even though color photography uses silver chloride, it only works as a mediator for transforming light into organic image dyes. Other photographic uses include making photographic paper , since it reacts with photons to form latent images via photoreduction; and in photochromic lenses , taking advantage of its reversible conversion to Ag metal. Unlike photography, where

1173-402: Is AgCl. AgCl quickly darkens on exposure to light by disintegrating into elemental chlorine and metallic silver . This reaction is used in photography and film and is the following: The process is not reversible because the silver atom liberated is typically found at a crystal defect or an impurity site so that the electron's energy is lowered enough that it is "trapped". Silver chloride

1242-449: Is a constituent of the silver chloride electrode which is a common reference electrode in electrochemistry . The electrode functions as a reversible redox electrode and the equilibrium is between the solid silver metal and silver chloride in a chloride solution of a given concentration. It is usually the internal reference electrode in pH meters and it is often used as a reference in reduction potential measurements. As an example of

1311-557: Is a volatile, colorless liquid that has a slight odor. It burns with a smokeless blue flame that is not always visible in normal light. The physical properties of ethanol stem primarily from the presence of its hydroxyl group and the shortness of its carbon chain. Ethanol's hydroxyl group is able to participate in hydrogen bonding, rendering it more viscous and less volatile than less polar organic compounds of similar molecular weight, such as propane . Ethanol's adiabatic flame temperature for combustion in air is 2082 °C or 3779 °F. Ethanol

1380-447: Is an organic compound with the chemical formula CH 3 CH 2 OH . It is an alcohol , with its formula also written as C 2 H 5 OH , C 2 H 6 O or EtOH, where Et stands for ethyl . Ethanol is a volatile , flammable , colorless liquid with a characteristic wine -like odor and pungent taste. In nature, grape-sugar breaks up by the action of fermentation into alcohol or carbonic acid, without anything being added. As

1449-699: Is another potential source of ethanol, and is suitable for growing in dryland conditions. The International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics is investigating the possibility of growing sorghum as a source of fuel, food, and animal feed in arid parts of Asia and Africa . Sweet sorghum has one-third the water requirement of sugarcane over the same time period. It also requires about 22% less water than corn. The world's first sweet sorghum ethanol distillery began commercial production in 2007 in Andhra Pradesh , India . Ethanol has been produced in

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1518-563: Is as an engine fuel and fuel additive . Brazil in particular relies heavily upon the use of ethanol as an engine fuel, due in part to its role as one of the world's leading producers of ethanol. Gasoline sold in Brazil contains at least 25% anhydrous ethanol. Hydrous ethanol (about 95% ethanol and 5% water) can be used as fuel in more than 90% of new gasoline-fueled cars sold in the country. The US and many other countries primarily use E10 (10% ethanol, sometimes known as gasohol) and E85 (85% ethanol) ethanol/gasoline mixtures. Over time, it

1587-463: Is being conducted at a research level although there are a number of organizations at the beginning of the commercialization of ethanol fuel cells. Ethanol fireplaces can be used for home heating or for decoration. Ethanol can also be used as stove fuel for cooking. As a central nervous system depressant , ethanol is one of the most commonly consumed psychoactive drugs . Despite alcohol's psychoactive, addictive, and carcinogenic properties, it

1656-439: Is believed that a material portion of the ≈150-billion-US-gallon (570,000,000 m ) per year market for gasoline will begin to be replaced with fuel ethanol. Australian law limits the use of pure ethanol from sugarcane waste to 10 % in automobiles. Older cars (and vintage cars designed to use a slower burning fuel) should have the engine valves upgraded or replaced. According to an industry advocacy group , ethanol as

1725-481: Is considered a flammable liquid (Class 3 Hazardous Material) in concentrations above 2.35% by mass (3.0% by volume; 6 proof ). Dishes using burning alcohol for culinary effects are called flambé . Ethanol is a byproduct of the metabolic process of yeast. As such, ethanol will be present in any yeast habitat. Ethanol can commonly be found in overripe fruit. Ethanol produced by symbiotic yeast can be found in bertam palm blossoms. Although some animal species, such as

1794-439: Is considered a universal solvent , as its molecular structure allows for the dissolving of both polar , hydrophilic and nonpolar , hydrophobic compounds. As ethanol also has a low boiling point , it is easy to remove from a solution that has been used to dissolve other compounds, making it a popular extracting agent for botanical oils. Cannabis oil extraction methods often use ethanol as an extraction solvent, and also as

1863-451: Is currently used in lightweight rocket-powered racing aircraft . Commercial fuel cells operate on reformed natural gas, hydrogen or methanol. Ethanol is an attractive alternative due to its wide availability, low cost, high purity and low toxicity. There is a wide range of fuel cell concepts that have entered trials including direct-ethanol fuel cells , auto-thermal reforming systems and thermally integrated systems. The majority of work

1932-410: Is effective against most bacteria , fungi and viruses . It is ineffective against bacterial spores , which can be treated with hydrogen peroxide . A solution of 70% ethanol is more effective than pure ethanol because ethanol relies on water molecules for optimal antimicrobial activity. Absolute ethanol may inactivate microbes without destroying them because the alcohol is unable to fully permeate

2001-429: Is less expensive and more readily available than fomepizole in the role. Ethanol is used to dissolve many water-insoluble medications and related compounds. Liquid preparations of pain medications , cough and cold medicines , and mouth washes, for example, may contain up to 25% ethanol and may need to be avoided in individuals with adverse reactions to ethanol such as alcohol-induced respiratory reactions . Ethanol

2070-433: Is more economical depends on prevailing prices of petroleum and grain feed stocks. World production of ethanol in 2006 was 51 gigalitres (1.3 × 10  US gal), with 69% of the world supply coming from Brazil and the U.S. Brazilian ethanol is produced from sugarcane, which has relatively high yields (830% more fuel than the fossil fuels used to produce it) compared to some other energy crops . Sugarcane not only has

2139-585: Is more economical. In an older process, first practiced on the industrial scale in 1930 by Union Carbide but now almost entirely obsolete, ethylene was hydrated indirectly by reacting it with concentrated sulfuric acid to produce ethyl sulfate , which was hydrolyzed to yield ethanol and regenerate the sulfuric acid: Ethanol in alcoholic beverages and fuel is produced by fermentation. Certain species of yeast (e.g., Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) metabolize sugar (namely polysaccharides ), producing ethanol and carbon dioxide. The chemical equations below summarize

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2208-459: Is present mainly as an antimicrobial preservative in over 700 liquid preparations of medicine including acetaminophen , iron supplements , ranitidine , furosemide , mannitol , phenobarbital , trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole and over-the-counter cough medicine . Some medicinal solutions of ethanol are also known as tinctures . In mammals, ethanol is primarily metabolized in the liver and stomach by ADH enzymes. These enzymes catalyze

2277-537: Is rated 1.7, where gasoline is 1.0 and higher numbers signify greater pollution. The California Air Resources Board formalized this issue in 2008 by recognizing control standards for formaldehydes as an emissions control group, much like the conventional NOx and reactive organic gases (ROGs). More than 20% of Brazilian cars are able to use 100% ethanol as fuel, which includes ethanol-only engines and flex-fuel engines. Flex-fuel engines in Brazil are able to work with all ethanol, all gasoline or any mixture of both. In

2346-457: Is readily available and legal for sale in many countries. There are laws regulating the sale, exportation/importation, taxation, manufacturing, consumption, and possession of alcoholic beverages. The most common regulation is prohibition for minors. Ethanol is an important industrial ingredient. It has widespread use as a precursor for other organic compounds such as ethyl halides , ethyl esters , diethyl ether, acetic acid, and ethyl amines . It

2415-463: Is slightly more refractive than water, having a refractive index of 1.36242 (at λ=589.3 nm and 18.35 °C or 65.03 °F). The triple point for ethanol is 150 ± 20 K . Ethanol is a versatile solvent, miscible with water and with many organic solvents, including acetic acid , acetone , benzene , carbon tetrachloride , chloroform , diethyl ether, ethylene glycol, glycerol , nitromethane , pyridine , and toluene . Its main use as

2484-414: Is sometimes used in laboratories (with dry ice or other coolants) as a cooling bath to keep vessels at temperatures below the freezing point of water. For the same reason, it is also used as the active fluid in alcohol thermometers . Ethanol is a 2-carbon alcohol . Its molecular formula is CH 3 CH 2 OH. The structure of the molecule of ethanol is CH 3 −CH 2 −OH (an ethyl group linked to

2553-472: Is the Augustin process developed in 1843, wherein copper ore containing small amounts of silver is roasted in chloridizing conditions and the silver chloride produced is leached by brine , where it is more soluble. Silver-based photographic films were first made in 1727 by Johann Heinrich Schulze with silver nitrate . However, he was not successful in making permanent images, as they faded away. Later in 1816,

2622-677: Is the most commonly used. Cyanidation produces the soluble dicyanoargentate complex, which is later turned back to silver by reduction. Silver chloride does not react with nitric acid, but instead reacts with sulfuric acid to produce silver sulfate . Then the sulfate is protonated in the presence of sulfuric acid to bisulfate , which can be reversed by dilution. This reaction is used to separate silver from other platinum group metals. Most complexes derived from AgCl are two-, three-, and, in rare cases, four-coordinate, adopting linear, trigonal planar, and tetrahedral coordination geometries, respectively. These two reactions are particularly important in

2691-431: Is used as a chemical solvent and in the synthesis of organic compounds, and as a fuel source for lamps, stoves, and internal combustion engines. Ethanol also can be dehydrated to make ethylene, an important chemical feedstock. As of 2023, world production of ethanol fuel was 29,590,000,000 US gallons (112.0 gigalitres), coming mostly from the U.S. (51%) and Brazil (26%). Ethanol is the systematic name defined by

2760-561: Is used industrially as a method of producing AgCl), or cobalt(II) chloride . The silver chloride that forms will precipitate immediately. It can also be produced by the reaction of silver metal and aqua regia ; however, the insolubility of silver chloride decelerates the reaction. Silver chloride is also a by-product of the Miller process , where silver metal is reacted with chlorine gas at elevated temperatures. Silver chloride has been known since ancient times. Ancient Egyptians produced it as

2829-495: The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry for a compound consisting of an alkyl group with two carbon atoms (prefix "eth-"), having a single bond between them (infix "-an-") and an attached −OH functional group (suffix "-ol"). The "eth-" prefix and the qualifier "ethyl" in "ethyl alcohol" originally came from the name "ethyl" assigned in 1834 to the group C 2 H 5 − by Justus Liebig . He coined

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2898-419: The carburetor ) and attribute the damage to the increased water retention by ethanol in fuel. Ethanol was commonly used as fuel in early bipropellant rocket (liquid-propelled) vehicles, in conjunction with an oxidizer such as liquid oxygen. The German A-4 ballistic rocket of World War II (better known by its propaganda name V-2 ), which is credited as having begun the space age, used ethanol as

2967-407: The oxidation of ethanol into acetaldehyde (ethanal): When present in significant concentrations, this metabolism of ethanol is additionally aided by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2E1 in humans, while trace amounts are also metabolized by catalase . The resulting intermediate, acetaldehyde, is a known carcinogen, and poses significantly greater toxicity in humans than ethanol itself. Many of

3036-449: The pentailed treeshrew , exhibit ethanol-seeking behaviors, most show no interest or avoidance of food sources containing ethanol. Ethanol is also produced during the germination of many plants as a result of natural anaerobiosis . Ethanol has been detected in outer space , forming an icy coating around dust grains in interstellar clouds . Minute quantity amounts (average 196 ppb ) of endogenous ethanol and acetaldehyde were found in

3105-430: The qualitative analysis of AgCl in labs as AgCl is white, which changes to Ag 3 AsO 3 {\displaystyle {\ce {Ag3AsO3}}} (silver arsenite) which is yellow, or Ag 3 AsO 4 {\displaystyle {\ce {Ag3AsO4}}} ( silver arsenate ) which is reddish brown. In one of the most famous reactions in chemistry,

3174-491: The Renewable Fuels Association, as of 30 October 2007, 131 grain ethanol bio-refineries in the U.S. have the capacity to produce 7 × 10 ^  US gal (26,000,000 m ) of ethanol per year. An additional 72 construction projects underway (in the U.S.) can add 6.4 billion US gallons (24,000,000 m ) of new capacity in the next 18 months. In India ethanol is made from sugarcane. Sweet sorghum

3243-557: The United States, flex-fuel vehicles can run on 0% to 85% ethanol (15% gasoline) since higher ethanol blends are not yet allowed or efficient. Brazil supports this fleet of ethanol-burning automobiles with large national infrastructure that produces ethanol from domestically grown sugarcane. Ethanol's high miscibility with water makes it unsuitable for shipping through modern pipelines like liquid hydrocarbons. Mechanics have seen increased cases of damage to small engines (in particular,

3312-784: The addition of colorless aqueous silver nitrate to an equally colorless solution of sodium chloride produces an opaque white precipitate of AgCl: This conversion is a common test for the presence of chloride in solution. Due to its conspicuousness, it is easily used in titration, which gives the typical case of argentometry . The solubility product , K sp , for AgCl in water is 1.77 × 10 at room temperature, which indicates that only 1.9 mg (that is, 1.77 × 10 − 10   m o l {\displaystyle {\sqrt {1.77\times 10^{-10}}}\ \mathrm {mol} } ) of AgCl will dissolve per liter of water. The chloride content of an aqueous solution can be determined quantitatively by weighing

3381-637: The arid and oxidized zones in silver deposits. If some of the chloride ions are replaced by bromide or iodide ions, the words bromian and iodian are added before the name, respectively. This mineral is a source of silver and is leached by cyanidation, where it will produce the soluble [Ag(CN) 2 ] complex. According to the ECHA , silver chloride may damage the unborn child , is very toxic to aquatic life with long lasting effects and may be corrosive to metals. Ethanol Ethanol (also called ethyl alcohol , grain alcohol , drinking alcohol , or simply alcohol )

3450-466: The characteristic alcohol flush reaction that can cause temporary reddening of the skin as well as a number of related, and often unpleasant, symptoms of acetaldehyde toxicity. This mutation is typically accompanied by another mutation in the ADH enzyme ADH1B in roughly 80 % of east Asians, which improves the catalytic efficiency of converting ethanol into acetaldehyde. The largest single use of ethanol

3519-454: The composition of the ethanol-water azeotrope shifts to more ethanol-rich mixtures. The minimum-pressure azeotrope has an ethanol fraction of 100% and a boiling point of 306 K (33 °C), corresponding to a pressure of roughly 70  torr (9.333 kPa). Below this pressure, there is no azeotrope, and it is possible to distill absolute ethanol from an ethanol-water mixture. An ethanol–water solution will catch fire if heated above

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3588-504: The conversion: Fermentation is the process of culturing yeast under favorable thermal conditions to produce alcohol. This process is carried out at around 35–40 °C (95–104 °F). Toxicity of ethanol to yeast limits the ethanol concentration obtainable by brewing; higher concentrations, therefore, are obtained by fortification or distillation . The most ethanol-tolerant yeast strains can survive up to approximately 18% ethanol by volume. Potassium dicyanoargentate KAg(CN) 2

3657-414: The ethanol molecule also has a nonpolar end, it will also dissolve nonpolar substances, including most essential oils and numerous flavoring, coloring, and medicinal agents. The addition of even a few percent of ethanol to water sharply reduces the surface tension of water. This property partially explains the " tears of wine " phenomenon. When wine is swirled in a glass, ethanol evaporates quickly from

3726-429: The exhaled breath of healthy volunteers. Auto-brewery syndrome , also known as gut fermentation syndrome, is a rare medical condition in which intoxicating quantities of ethanol are produced through endogenous fermentation within the digestive system . Ethanol is produced both as a petrochemical , through the hydration of ethylene and, via biological processes, by fermenting sugars with yeast . Which process

3795-406: The laboratory by converting carbon dioxide via biological and electrochemical reactions. Ethanol can be produced from petrochemical feed stocks, primarily by the acid - catalyzed hydration of ethylene. It is often referred to as synthetic ethanol. The catalyst is most commonly phosphoric acid , adsorbed onto a porous support such as silica gel or diatomaceous earth . This catalyst

3864-483: The latter, the silver chloride electrode is the most commonly used reference electrode for testing cathodic protection corrosion control systems in seawater environments. Silver chloride and silver nitrate have been used in photography since it began, and are well known for their light sensitivity. It was also a vital part of the Daguerreotype sensitization where silver plates were fumed with chlorine to produce

3933-450: The main constituent of B-Stoff . Under such nomenclature, the ethanol was mixed with 25% water to reduce the combustion chamber temperature. The V-2's design team helped develop U.S. rockets following World War II, including the ethanol-fueled Redstone rocket , which launched the first U.S. astronaut on suborbital spaceflight . Alcohols fell into general disuse as more energy-dense rocket fuels were developed, although ethanol

4002-512: The microbe's membrane. Ethanol can also be used as a disinfectant and antiseptic by inducing cell dehydration through disruption of the osmotic balance across the cell membrane, causing water to leave the cell, leading to cell death. Ethanol may be administered as an antidote to ethylene glycol poisoning and methanol poisoning . It does so by acting as a competitive inhibitor against methanol and ethylene glycol for alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). Though it has more side effects, ethanol

4071-405: The mineral chlorargyrite . It is produced by a metathesis reaction for use in photography and in pH meters as electrodes . Silver chloride is unusual in that, unlike most chloride salts, it has very low solubility. It is easily synthesized by metathesis : combining an aqueous solution of silver nitrate (which is soluble) with a soluble chloride salt, such as sodium chloride (which

4140-409: The number of carbons increases. The miscibility of ethanol with alkanes is limited to alkanes up to undecane : mixtures with dodecane and higher alkanes show a miscibility gap below a certain temperature (about 13 °C for dodecane ). The miscibility gap tends to get wider with higher alkanes, and the temperature for complete miscibility increases. Ethanol-water mixtures have less volume than

4209-484: The photoreduction is irreversible, the glass prevents the electron from being 'trapped'. These photochromic lenses are used primarily in sunglasses . Silver chloride nanoparticles are widely sold commercially as an antimicrobial agent. The antimicrobial activity of silver chloride depends on the particle size, but are usually below 100 nm . In general, silver chloride is antimicrobial against various bacteria , such as E. coli . Silver chloride nanoparticles for use as

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4278-467: The precipitated AgCl, which conveniently is non-hygroscopic since AgCl is one of the few transition metal chlorides that are insoluble in water. Interfering ions for this test are bromide and iodide, as well as a variety of ligands (see silver halide ). For AgBr and AgI, the K sp values are 5.2 x 10 and 8.3 x 10, respectively. Silver bromide (slightly yellowish white) and silver iodide (bright yellow) are also significantly more photosensitive than

4347-679: The sum of their individual components at the given fractions. Mixing equal volumes of ethanol and water results in only 1.92 volumes of mixture. Mixing ethanol and water is exothermic , with up to 777 J/mol being released at 298 K. Hydrogen bonding causes pure ethanol to be hygroscopic to the extent that it readily absorbs water from the air. The polar nature of the hydroxyl group causes ethanol to dissolve many ionic compounds, notably sodium and potassium hydroxides , magnesium chloride , calcium chloride , ammonium chloride , ammonium bromide , and sodium bromide . Sodium and potassium chlorides are slightly soluble in ethanol. Because

4416-542: The symptoms typically associated with alcohol intoxication—as well as many of the health hazards typically associated with the long-term consumption of ethanol—can be attributed to acetaldehyde toxicity in humans. The subsequent oxidation of acetaldehyde into acetate is performed by aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) enzymes. A mutation in the ALDH2 gene that encodes for an inactive or dysfunctional form of this enzyme affects roughly 50 % of east Asian populations, contributing to

4485-449: The thin film of wine on the wall of the glass. As the wine's ethanol content decreases, its surface tension increases and the thin film "beads up" and runs down the glass in channels rather than as a smooth sheet. At atmospheric pressure, mixtures of ethanol and water form an azeotrope at about 89.4  mol% ethanol (95.6% ethanol by mass, 97% alcohol by volume ), with a boiling point of 351.3 K (78.1 °C). At lower pressure,

4554-533: The use of silver chloride was introduced into photography by Nicéphore Niépce . The solid adopts the fcc NaCl structure, in which each Ag ion is surrounded by an octahedron of six chloride ligands. AgF and AgBr crystallize similarly. However, the crystallography depends on the condition of crystallization, primarily free silver ion concentration, as is shown in the picture to the left (greyish tint and metallic lustre are due to partially reduced silver ). Above 7.5 GPa , silver chloride transitions into

4623-686: The word from the German name Aether of the compound C 2 H 5 −O− C 2 H 5 (commonly called "ether" in English , more specifically called " diethyl ether "). According to the Oxford English Dictionary , Ethyl is a contraction of the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ ( aithḗr , "upper air") and the Greek word ὕλη ( hýlē , "wood, raw material", hence "matter, substance"). Ethanol

4692-612: Was coined as a result of a resolution on naming alcohols and phenols that was adopted at the International Conference on Chemical Nomenclature that was held in April 1892 in Geneva , Switzerland. The term alcohol now refers to a wider class of substances in chemistry nomenclature, but in common parlance it remains the name of ethanol. It is a medieval loan from Arabic al-kuḥl , a powdered ore of antimony used since antiquity as

4761-506: Was first used for large-scale ethanol production by the Shell Oil Company in 1947. The reaction is carried out in the presence of high pressure steam at 300 °C (572 °F) where a 5:3 ethylene to steam ratio is maintained. This process was used on an industrial scale by Union Carbide Corporation and others. It is no longer practiced in the US as fermentation ethanol produced from corn

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