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161-672: The river is born in Peru , and runs North-Eastwards, forming part of the border between Peru and Brazil and then part of the border between Bolivia and Brazil. It runs through the Brazilian states of Acre and Amazonas , before eventually running into the Purus River at Boca do Acre . It runs along the Bolivian frontier and flows northeastward to a junction with the Purus at 8° 45' South latitude. The name

322-439: A constitutional monarchy , a proposal that was turned down. De la Serna abandoned the city, and on 12 July 1821, San Martín occupied Lima and declared Peruvian independence on 28 July 1821. He created the first Peruvian flag. Upper Peru (present-day Bolivia) remained as a Spanish stronghold until the army of Simón Bolívar liberated it three years later. José de San Martín was declared Protector of Peru. Peruvian national identity

483-479: A governor by the new Sapa Inca to ensure the payment of "1000 bird cages from the Andes and the puna grasslands " as tribute in the newly annexed Cuyos ayllu. Capac Yupanqui ( c.  1320  – c.  1350 ) inherited a Cusco under the direct interest of his larger neighbours -now competitors- as it was no longer a small invader chiefdom struggling for survival, but one fighting to gain power. He continued

644-500: A $ 900 million deficit. The economic turbulence of the time acerbated social tensions in Peru and partly contributed to the rise of violent rebel rural insurgent movements, like Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) and MRTA , which caused great havoc throughout the country. The Peruvian armed forces, frustrated with the inability of the García administration to handle the nation's crises, drafted

805-457: A Huallacan woman- to become the Auqui , probably with the intention of having influence over the government. They planned to ambush the young prince in the town of Paulo, and so sent an invitation, to which his father agreed, but had his son be accompanied by 40 Rinriyuq (Inca noblemen) as bodyguards with the order to kill anyone who posed a threat to him. Despite the precautions, both were killed in

966-415: A boundary dispute between the two republics. In July 1899 the "Acreanos" declared their independence and set up a republic of their own, but in the following March they were reduced to submission by Brazil. Various disorders followed until Brazil decided to occupy Puerto Alonso with a military force. The boundary dispute was finally settled at Petropolis on November 17, 1903, through the purchase by Brazil of

1127-522: A crushing defeat due to the outstanding participation of Mama Huaco at the lead of the Inca forces. Many were impaled by her order. Defeated, they fled the area towards the modern-day Sacred Valley of the Incas . The common danger also strongly united Alcahuisas and Sahuaseras , who put up strong resistance, but were ultimately defeated anyway. The Alcachuisa chief, Copalimayta , preferred exile to domination, while

1288-658: A few days the temples that were there. The Chankas , positioned on the limits of the Apurimac River after the defeat of the Quechuas, were now in a threatening position to invade both Cusco and the Ayarmaca chiefdom. Probably confident in their victories until then, they weren't prepared for the sudden attack by the forces of Inca Roca, who recruited mercenaries from the Canas and Canchis independent chiefdoms, making them flee all

1449-618: A high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic , and is one of the megadiverse countries. Peru has over 1,800 species of birds (120 endemic ), over 500 species of mammals , over 300 species of reptiles, and over 1,000 species of freshwater fishes . The hundreds of mammals include rare species like the puma , jaguar and spectacled bear . The Birds of Peru produce large amounts of guano , an economically important export. The Pacific holds large quantities of sea bass , flounder , anchovies , tuna , crustaceans , and shellfish , and

1610-523: A house's thatched roof ablaze instantly. As the people left their houses, an old woman claimed to have witnessed the stone fall from the sky, believing it to be a sign of divine retribution for their rebellious actions. Fearing defeat, they crossed the river on rafts bearing offerings to reconcile with the Incas. Viracocha pretended to be uninterested but then informed them that, had they not surrendered that day, he would have beaten them with large rafts that he had already ordered built. They subsequently sealed

1771-524: A large diversity of climates. Elevations above sea level in the country range from −37 to 6,778 m (−121 to 22,238 ft) and precipitation ranges from less than 20 mm (0.79 in) annually in desert areas to more than 8,000 mm (310 in) in tropical rainforest areas. Due to its geography, Peru can be divide into three main climates. The unbroken and relatively slim coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitation, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches. In

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1932-429: A leader all the territory gained would be lost. As the conversation heated up, a woman proposed Hatun Tupac, nephew of the former monarch, arguing that he deserved it. Sources differ on whether or not he was the son of Yahuar Huaca, although what is clear is that he belonged to Hanan Cusco and that he was presented to the rest of the world as his legitimate son and successor, probably with the intention to completely erase

2093-607: A minor rebellion led by the Pacaycacha in the Pisac valley. This uprising in Cusco's vicinity served as an opportunity for the Muyna and Pinagua chiefdoms to revolt once again, this time with support from the people of Rondocancha and Casacancha, who in turn were followed by attacks from Ayarmacas and Guaypomarcas. However, they were all defeated thanks to the military command of Vicaquirao and Apo Mayta,

2254-522: A mix of cultures and ethnicities that did not exist before the Spanish conquered the Peruvian territory. Even though many of the Inca traditions were lost or diluted, new customs, traditions and knowledge were added, creating a rich mixed Peruvian culture. Two of the most important Indigenous rebellions against the Spanish were that of Juan Santos Atahualpa in 1742, and Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in 1780 around

2415-719: A peace agreement, and Viracocha provided one of his women to the Caytomarca sinchi as a gift. While Viracocha's forces were outside the capital, a brother of Yahuar Huaca assassinated the Inca raptin (a substitute for the Sapa Inca's absence in Cusco) with some of Hurin Cusco members' aid. However, he failed to garner enough support from the public or the rest of the nobility before ultimately taking his own life with poison, fearing punishment. Despite this, Viracocha remained uneasy and decided to resolve

2576-532: A period of relative economic and political stability began due to the exploitation of guano that ended with the War of the Pacific (1879–1884). Throughout the 20th century, Peru grappled with political and social instability, including the internal conflict between the state and guerrilla groups, interspersed with periods of economic growth. Implementation of Plan Verde shifted Peru towards neoliberal economics under

2737-667: A political and economic grouping of countries along Latin America's Pacific coast that share common trends of positive growth, stable macroeconomic foundations, improved governance and an openness to global integration. Peru ranks high in social freedom ; it is an active member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation , the Pacific Alliance , the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership and

2898-499: A powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in the pre-Columbian Americas with their capital in Cusco . The Incas of Cusco originally represented one of the small and relatively minor ethnic groups, the Quechuas . Gradually, as early as the thirteenth century, they began to expand and incorporate their neighbors. Inca expansion was slow until about the middle of

3059-566: A result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal . The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to

3220-399: A self-imposed exile, initially avoiding prosecution for human rights violations and corruption charges by the new Peruvian authorities. Peru tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth at the start of the 21st century, though Fujimorism held power over much of Peruvian society through maintaining control of institutions and legislation created in the 1993 constitution, which

3381-473: A skirmish they were forced to withdraw; from there he was returned to Cusco, and as a reward for the great favor done, the Antas were treated as brothers of the capital from then on. In order to put an end to hostilities, Cusco and the Ayarmaca chiefdom would eventually make an exchange of women: Mama Chiquia, daughter of Tocay Capac, was given to Titu Cusi Huallpa, while the ñusta Curi Ocllo, daughter of Inca Roca,

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3542-529: A small city-state founded by the Incas around the start of 13th century. In time, through warfare or peaceful assimilation, it began to grow into the Inca Empire (1438–1533). The government in Cusco was not much different than most chiefdoms in the region. It is likely that the title held by each ruler was that of a kuraka or sinchi , until the reign of Inca Roca , who introduced the term Sapa Inca , or Inca for short. The latter would be used to describe

3703-619: A son with a concubine whom he named Viccho Tupac, after an ayllu with the same name. During this period of time there were no incidents with the Ayarmacas thanks to his marriage with Mama Chiquia, who ended up becoming the Coya , and whom with he had his sons Paucar Ayllu and Pahuac Huallpa Mayta, the latter became his successor despite being the youngest between both. This disgusted the Huallacan chiefdom, who wanted Marcayuto -the son of Yahuar Huaca with

3864-515: A title held by those in charge of some of the larger chiefdoms in the Andes. Similarly, there was also the title of hatun kuraka ("great lord") with the same implication, which was still in use during the Inca Empire to refer to the heads of larger provinces, as was the case with the Huancas who got divided into three. Sinchi was the Andean equivalent of a warlord and military commander. This position

4025-471: A year, until Chimor Orma, wife of Tocay Capac and daughter of the chief of Anta , became fond of him and decided to escape together with her relatives. Thus, one day when he went out to play with other children, he met the group at an agreed place and they hurriedly left the city. When the Ayarmacas were alerted, they pursued them until to the Huaypo Lake, around 31 km. from the city of Cusco, where after

4186-453: Is also applied to a district situated on the same river and on the former boundary line of 1867, between Bolivia and Brazil. This region's area is estimated at 60,000 square miles (160,000 km). It is navigable from the mouth until the Xapuri River (480 kilometres (300 mi)), even farther in the wet season from January until May. The river was an important transportation artery at

4347-510: Is home to many sharks, sperm whales , and whales. The invertebrate fauna is far less inventoried; at least beetles (Coleoptera) have been surveyed in the "Beetles of Peru" project, led by Caroline S. Chaboo, University of Nebraska, USA and this revealved more 12,000 documented and many new species for Peru. Peru also has an equally diverse flora . The coastal deserts produce little more than cacti , apart from hilly fog oases and river valleys that contain unique plant life. The Highlands above

4508-579: Is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region. The country has fifty-four hydrographic basins, fifty-two of which are small coastal basins that discharge their waters into the Pacific Ocean. The final two are the endorheic basin of Lake Titicaca , and the Amazon basin, which empties into

4669-509: The Cunti people, to the southwest; but he died due to disease before his departure. Many chiefdoms allied with Cusco once the news spread of his victory in suppressing the rebellion, so he celebrated great feasts for his people. He married Mama Tancaray, daughter of the chief of the Collagua people, and his panaca was called Usca Mayta . He also had many children, the eldest, named Cunti Mayta,

4830-466: The auto-golpe ("self-coup") of 5 April 1992. He then revised the constitution, called new congressional elections, and implemented substantial economic reform, including privatization of numerous state-owned companies, creation of an investment-friendly climate, and sound management of the economy. Nonetheless, these policies did not benefit the poorest much, and inequality persisted despite Fujimori's economic achievements. Fujimori's administration

4991-464: The 2006 elections . In 2006, Alberto Fujimori's daughter, Keiko Fujimori , entered Peru's political arena to continue her father's legacy and espouse Fujimorism. In May 2008, Peru became a member of the Union of South American Nations . In April 2009, former president Alberto Fujimori was convicted of human rights violations and sentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in killings and kidnappings by

Acre River - Misplaced Pages Continue

5152-591: The Alcahuisa people prepared to revolt with the help of the cullumchima ayllu after many years of an allegedly fake allegiance. The pretext for the conflict was an incident between a man and a woman of opposing sides over a well , where Mayta Capac broke the leg of the Alcahuisa sinchi's son. In retaliation, the Inticancha was attacked during the night, but he was able to fight back and kill two men, injuring many more. Once

5313-495: The Apurimac River . What little remained of his family was grouped under the name of Aucaylli panaca , since many of the ex-Sapa Inca's sons were also killed in the attack. Without a clear candidate for the succession of the government, the rest of the Panakas met to decide what to do, some proposed to set aside the position of the Sapa Inca and let prominent members of the state take over the government, while others argued that without

5474-510: The Ayacucho massacre and Juliaca massacre occurring at this time, resulting with the most violence experienced in the nation in over two decades. The strong response by the political elite in Lima raised concerns that they sought to establish an authoritarian or civilian-military government . Peru is located on the central western coast of South America facing the Pacific Ocean. It lies wholly in

5635-516: The Ayarmaca ayllus, Tampucunca and Quilliscachis , which caused conflicts inside the macro-ethnic group. He married Mama Cahua, princess of the Uma ayllu, (for political reasons) and so his family was grouped within the Auyni panaca . A young Mayta Capac ( c.  1290  – c.  1320 ) was put in charge after his father died of old age. It was necessary for the maskaypacha to be kept inside

5796-469: The Ayarmaca nation, for which the Huallacan people invited the boy with the excuse of visiting his mother's land and recognizing him as the future heir. At the town of Micaocancha, they left him alone because they had to "farm their fields" and deliberately let him be kidnapped by the Ayarmacas in an ambush, who then took him to the town of Amaru. Here, Tocay Capac ordered his men to kill him, but according to

5957-452: The COVID-19 pandemic , precipitating the period of unrest beginning in 2022 . The sovereign state of Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions . Its main economic activities include mining , manufacturing , agriculture and fishing, along with other growing sectors such as telecommunications and biotechnology . The country forms part of The Pacific Pumas ,

6118-526: The Canchis chiefdom after meeting little resistance. Meanwhile, their Canas neighbours were peacefully annexed, for which he ordered the construction of a temple dedicated to the god Viracocha and arranged for them to provide the Incas with supplies in the town of Ayaviri . The curaca of the Collas learned of the Incas' secret alliance and decided to confront his Lupaca counterpart before their allies arrived,

6279-493: The Chanka warriors a greater threat than that of its southern neighbors, for which reason they sought an alliance with Capac Yupanqui by sending him the princess Curi Hilpay to marry, from this union he had a son called Quispe Yupanqui. Cusi Chimbo was another wife of his, sister of the first Coya before Curi Hilpay , called Mama Chimbo, she is described as "Cruel and with bad behavior, friend of banquets and drunkenness." Whether it

6440-553: The Collao region, were growing stronger. But since neither side wanted an all-out conflict due to their shared fear of each other, they sought an alliance with the Incas instead. Viracocha assured both of his support, but secretly promised his help to Curi, curaca of the Lupacas, who had previously defeated the Canas chiefdom and taken their lands. On his way south, Viracocha successfully conquered

6601-467: The Grupo Colina death squad during his government's battle against leftist guerrillas in the 1990s. During the presidencies of Ollanta Humala , Pedro Pablo Kuczynski and Martín Vizcarra , the right-wing Congress led by Keiko Fujimori obstructed much of the actions performed by the presidents. On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected president, with his cabinet being successfully censured by

Acre River - Misplaced Pages Continue

6762-523: The Huaca Prieta settlement. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing ; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Caral/Norte Chico civilization , flourished along the coast of

6923-422: The Huallacan ethnic group, called Mama Micay, whom he loved very much and with whom he had his son Titu Cusi Huallpa . Mama Micay turned out to be the former fiancée of Tocay Capac, leader of the Ayarmaca chiefdom, who upon hearing the news declared war on the Huallacan ayllus. After some years of conflict, both parties agreed to peace on the condition that the young Titu Cusi Huallpa had to be handed over to

7084-638: The International Petroleum Corporation (IPC), the North American company that exploited Peruvian oil, and then launched a reform of the state apparatus, an agrarian reform. It was the biggest agrarian reform ever undertaken in Latin America: it abolished the latifunda system and modernized agriculture through a more equitable redistribution of land (90% of the peasants formed cooperatives or agricultural societies of social interest). Land

7245-463: The Inticancha along with others, but they were all killed at the entrance of the temple. The rebels could have sacked the city, but stopped due to a thunderstorm that fell unexpectedly, believing it a providential omen and probably fearing retaliation from the Cusco army, they all returned to their lands. The regicide of Yahuar Huaca resulted in chaos in Cusco, which allowed the Chankas to reclaim

7406-496: The Inticancha with a new palace he built in the Hanan half of the city, where the twelve-angled stone was put, thus giving rise to the tradition that each Sapa Inca had to build his official residence instead of occupying the same one as his predecessor (i.e., the temple of the sun). He improved Cusco by building canals for the Saphy and Tullumayo rivers to run through the heart of

7567-567: The Plan Verde , which involved the genocide of impoverished and indigenous Peruvians, the control or censorship of the media in Peru , and the establishment of a neoliberal economy controlled by a military junta . Alberto Fujimori assumed the presidency in 1990 and, according to the head of the National Intelligence Service (SIN) Rospigliosi, an understanding was established between Fujimori, Vladimiro Montesinos , and some of

7728-783: The Sahuaseras were expelled to the south. Something similar happened to the three remaining groups: the Poques were expelled to the east, towards the Paucartambo River; the Lares were expelled to the northwest, to the valley that currently bears their name; while the Antasayas were expelled to the outskirts of Cusco during the government of Lloque Yupanqui (under the name of the Quisco ayllu, patronymic of their then chief). The recently founded city of Cusco

7889-491: The Sapa Inca , to be the " child of the sun ." Atahualpa (or Atahuallpa), the last Sapa Inca , became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother Huáscar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors (supported by the Chankas , Huancas , Cañaris and Chachapoyas as Indian auxiliaries ) led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured

8050-473: The Southern Hemisphere , its northernmost extreme reaching to 1.8 minutes of latitude or about 3.3 kilometres (2.1 mi) south of the equator , covers 1,285,216 km (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes mountains run parallel to

8211-453: The War of the Pacific , which lasted until 1884. Bolivia invoked its alliance with Peru against Chile. The Peruvian Government tried to mediate the dispute by sending a diplomatic team to negotiate with the Chilean government, but the committee concluded that war was inevitable. Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of this war was Chile's ambition to take over

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8372-545: The World Trade Organization ; and is considered as a middle power . Peru's population includes Mestizos , Amerindians , Europeans , Africans and Asians . The main spoken language is Spanish , although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechuan languages , Aymara , or other Indigenous languages . This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art , cuisine , literature , and music . The name of

8533-695: The cradles of civilization ), the Nazca culture , the Wari and Tiwanaku empires, the Kingdom of Cusco , and the Inca Empire , the largest known state in the pre-Columbian Americas. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and Charles V established a viceroyalty with the official name of the Kingdom of Peru that encompassed most of its South American territories, with its capital in Lima . Higher education started in

8694-523: The human rights violations committed in the last years of violence. His Programa Nacional de Población also resulted with the forced sterilization of at least 300,000 poor and indigenous women. In early 1995, once again Peru and Ecuador clashed in the Cenepa War , but in 1998 the governments of both nations signed a peace treaty that clearly demarcated the international boundary between them. In November 2000, Fujimori resigned from office and went into

8855-686: The war of independence in North America , and Native uprisings all contributed to a favorable climate to the development of emancipation ideas among the C riollo population in South America. However, the Criollo oligarchy in Peru enjoyed privileges and remained loyal to the Spanish Crown. The liberation movement started in Argentina where autonomous juntas were created as a result of the loss of authority of

9016-642: The 1529 Capitulación de Toledo , which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. In 1561, the rebel Lope de Aguirre declared himself the "Prince" of an independent Peru, which was cut short by his arrest and execution. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru , which became the Peruvian Republic from its independence until 1979 , when it adopted its current name of Republic of Peru . The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500 BCE in

9177-474: The 1860s Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla , through increased state revenues from guano exports. In 1864, a Spanish expedition occupied the Chincha Islands (guano producers) and unleashed an international incident with great consequences in Peruvian internal politics, which led to a coup d'état against President Juan Antonio Pezet , Mariano's government. Peru, with

9338-463: The Amazon. The largest lake in Peru , Lake Titicaca between Peru and Bolivia high in the Andes, is also the largest of South America. The largest reservoirs , all in the coastal region of Peru, are the Poechos , Tinajones, San Lorenzo, and El Fraile reservoirs. Although Peru is located entirely in the tropics , the combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents ( Humboldt and El Niño ) gives Peru

9499-438: The Americas with the official establishment of the National University of San Marcos in Lima in 1551. Peru formally proclaimed independence from Spain in 1821, and following the military campaigns of Bernardo O'Higgins , José de San Martín , and Simón Bolívar , as well as the decisive battle of Ayacucho , it completed its independence in 1824 . In the ensuing years, the country first suffered from political instability until

9660-414: The Atlantic Ocean. Both are delimited by the Andes mountain range. The Amazon basin is particularly noteworthy as it is the source of the Amazon River, which at 6872 km, is the longest river in the world, and covers 75% of Peruvian territory. Peru contains 4% of the planet's freshwater. Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins . Those that drain toward

9821-411: The Chimu flourished from about 1140 to 1450. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo . In the highlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia, and the Wari culture, near the present-day city of Ayacucho , developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 CE. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as

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9982-462: The Devil, who was working "through them to frustrate" their foundations. It only took a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples with churches, such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed the Inquisition , making use of torture to ensure that newly converted Catholics did not stray to other religions or beliefs, and monastery schools, educating girls, especially of

10143-462: The Fujimorist Congress. Beginning with Pedro Pablo Kuczynski , Congress used broadly interpreted impeachment wording in the 1993 Constitution of Peru that allowed impeachment of the president without cause to place pressure on the president, forcing him to resign in 2018 amid various controversies surrounding his administration. Vice president Martín Vizcarra then assumed office in March 2018 with generally favorable approval ratings as he led

10304-404: The God of the Sun who ruled from a magnificently rebuilt Cusco. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, from southern Colombia to northern Chile, between the Pacific Ocean in the west and the Amazon rainforest in the east. The official language of

10465-442: The Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca . After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima , which was then known as "La Ciudad de los Reyes" (The City of Kings). The conquest of Peru led to spin-off campaigns throughout

10626-416: The Inca nobility and upper class, "until they were old enough either to profess [to become a nun] or to leave the monastery and assume the role ('estado') in the Christian society that their fathers planned to erect" in Peru. Peruvian Catholicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations. In this endeavor,

10787-400: The National Library ( in favor of knowledge), the approval of the National Anthem, and the abolition of the mita (in favor of the indigenous people). On December 27, 1821, San Martín created three ministries: Ministry of State and Foreign Affairs, committing Juan García del Río; Ministry of War and Navy , to Bernardo de Monteagudo; and Ministry of Finance, to Hipólito Unanue. From the 1840s to

10948-403: The Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River have a much larger flow, and are longer and less steep once they exit the sierra . Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow. Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali , the Marañón , the Putumayo , the Yavarí , the Huallaga , the Urubamba , the Mantaro , and

11109-404: The Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE along what is now Peru's Pacific coast was an example of early pre- Inca culture . The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BCE

11270-423: The Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow, largely arid plain except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán . The third region

11431-406: The Pacific War. The casus belli was the confrontation between Bolivia and Chile over a tax problem in which Peru was compromised by the Treaty of Defensive Alliance signed with Bolivia in 1873. However, Peruvian historiography is unanimous in maintaining that the deep cause of This war was Chile's ambition to take over the nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru.92 In the first stage of the war,

11592-622: The Philippines. The commercial and population exchanges between Latin America and Asia undergone via the Manila Galleons transiting through Acapulco, had Callao at Peru as the furthest endpoint of the trade route in the Americas. In relation to this, Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera , governor of Panama was also responsible for settling Zamboanga City in the Philippines by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists. African slaves were added to

11753-570: The Spanish government over its colonies. After fighting for the independence of the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata, José de San Martín created the Army of the Andes and crossed the Andes in 21 days. Once in Chile, he joined forces with Chilean army General Bernardo O'Higgins and liberated the country in the battles of Chacabuco and Maipú in 1818. On 7 September 1820, a fleet of eight warships arrived in

11914-515: The Treaty, and neither of the countries could determine the statutory framework. The War of the Pacific was the bloodiest war Peru has fought in. After the War of the Pacific, an extraordinary effort of rebuilding began. The government started to initiate a number of social and economic reforms to recover from the damage of the war. Political stability was achieved only in the early 1900s. Internal struggles after

12075-417: The Viceroyalty of Peru. Eventually, the viceroyalty would dissolve, as with much of the Spanish empire, when challenged by national independence movements at the beginning of the nineteenth century. These movements led to the formation of the majority of modern-day countries of South America in the territories that at one point or another had constituted the Viceroyalty of Peru. The conquest and colony brought

12236-457: The ambush, and so Yahuar Huaca ordered the razing of the town of Paulo, capital of the Huallacan people, banishing some and massacring many others. After this tragic incident, the Sapa Inca prepared his army for an expedition towards the Collasuyo , for which most of his confederate chiefdoms and ayllus lent themselves, attracted by the promise of making the war with "blood and fire", his project

12397-512: The anti-corruption constitutional referendum movement. The COVID-19 pandemic resulted with Peru experiencing the highest death rate from COVID-19 in the world, exposing much of the inequality that persisted since the Fujimori administration and triggering an economic crisis that led to Vizcara's removal from the presidency by Congress . Widely seen as a coup by Congress, its head, the newly seated President Manuel Merino , faced protests across

12558-509: The arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west, to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country, to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River . Peru has a population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima . At 1,285,216 km (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in

12719-432: The authoritarian rule of Alberto Fujimori and Vladimiro Montesinos in the 1990s, with the former's political ideology of Fujimorism leaving a lasting imprint on the country's governance that continues to present day. The 2000s marked economic expansion and poverty reduction, but the subsequent decade revealed long-existing sociopolitical vulnerabilities , exacerbated by a political crisis instigated by Congress and

12880-608: The authorities – to a status equivalent to that of Spanish and established equal rights for natural children. Peru wished to free itself from any dependence and carried out a third-world foreign policy. The United States responded with commercial, economic and diplomatic pressure. In 1973 Peru seemed to triumph over the financial blockade imposed by Washington by negotiating a loan from the International Development Bank to finance its agricultural and mining development policy. The relations with Chile became very tense after

13041-402: The battle began, both sides hurled stones at each other across the river using slings, accompanied by loud shouts as in most conflicts, and continued for two days straight. Then one night, Viracocha ordered a stone to be heated over a fire, wrapped in a certain mixture or piece of cloth and put into a sling with golden threads. Viracocha launched the fiery projectile with such force that it set

13202-502: The bombings of Tarata and Frecuencia Latina by Sendero Luminoso. Fujimori would also broaden the definition of terrorism in an effort to criminalize as many actions possible to persecute left-wing political opponents. Using the terruqueo , a fearmongering tactic that was used to accuse opponents of terrorism, Fujimori established a cult of personality by portraying himself as a hero and made left-wing ideologies an eternal enemy in Peru. Those incidents subsequently came to symbolize

13363-496: The boundary between those two countries. In a military coup on 29 October 1948, General Manuel A. Odría became president. Odría's presidency was known as the Ochenio . He came down hard on APRA, momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a populist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At

13524-697: The church came to play an important role in the acculturation of the Natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers. By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms , a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty . The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed. As

13685-482: The city until both merge on the Huatanay , the valley's main river, using stone slabs that are still present today. He also mandated for the young members of the nobility to be instructed in the use of weapons and quipus , and according to Garcilaso , he was the one that founded the first Yachaywasi . Inca Roca ended up marrying Cusi Chimbo as well, but the chosen Coya was ultimately the daughter of Sumaq Inca, head of

13846-448: The command of Gregorio Escobedo. Because Peru was the stronghold of the Spanish government in South America, San Martín's strategy to liberate Peru was to use diplomacy. He sent representatives to Lima urging the Viceroy that Peru be granted independence, however, all negotiations proved unsuccessful. The Viceroy of Peru, Joaquín de la Pazuela named José de la Serna commander-in-chief of

14007-510: The construction of terraces and the importation of enormous quantities of soil to improve the fertility of the valley, as well as a war clash against the large Ayarmaca chiefdom. His descendants and family members were grouped within the Raura panaca . His successor, Lloque Yupanqui ( c.  1260  – c.  1290 ), continued the war against the Ayarmaca chiefdom, taking advantage of

14168-507: The construction of new homes, increasing the number of chacras , enlarging the molle and quinual groves, and the manufacturing of textiles , necessary products that he needed to compensate the services of his warriors and servants, in which he took great care so that the costumes of the nobility had tocapus . During this time, the Lupaca chiefdom and the Colla Kingdom , fierce rivals in

14329-407: The contemporary writer Inca Garcilaso de la Vega , son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He said the name Birú was that of a common Amerindian who was happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias Dávila and went on to relate more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language. The Spanish crown gave the name legal status with

14490-448: The country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce. With the discovery of the great silver and gold lodes at Potosí (present-day Bolivia) and Huancavelica , the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and

14651-495: The country may be derived from Birú , the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel , Panama City, in the early 16th century. Spanish conquistadors , who arrived in 1522, believed this was the southernmost part of the New World . When Francisco Pizarro invaded the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú . An alternative history is provided by

14812-579: The country, and after five days, Merino resigned from the presidency. Merino was replaced by President Francisco Sagasti , who led a provisional, centrist government, and enforced many of Vizcarra's former policies. Elections were held on 11 April 2021, and Pedro Castillo of the Free Peru party won the first round, followed closely by Keiko Fujimori, with right-wing parties allied with Fujimori maintaining positions in Congress. On 28 July 2021, Pedro Castillo

14973-456: The country. After the country experienced chronic inflation , the Peruvian sol was replaced by the inti in mid-1985, which itself was replaced by the nuevo sol in July 1991 (the new sol had a cumulative value of one billion old soles). At the end of the 1980s, the per capita annual income of Peruvians fell to $ 720 (below the level of 1960) and Peru's GDP dropped 20%, with national reserves running

15134-773: The coup d'état of the general Pinochet . General Edgardo Mercado Jarrin (Prime Minister and Commander-in-Chief of the Army) and Admiral Guillermo Faura Gaig (Minister of the Navy) both escaped assassination attempts within weeks of each other. In 1975 General Francisco Morales Bermúdez Cerruti seized power and broke with the policies of his predecessor. His regime occasionally participated in Operation Condor in collaboration with other American military dictatorships. President Alan García 's economic policies distanced Peru from international markets further, resulting in lower foreign investment in

15295-423: The crown upon his head, performing additional sacrifices in the temple and staging grand celebrations throughout Cusco. Much to the disappointment of the population and the nobility, his short reign was the most disastrous in the history of Cusco. He spent the majority of his time with alcohol in recreational establishments throughout Cusco. He wasn't ashamed to display his genitals or toss urine-filled cups, and he

15456-459: The crumbling Tiwanaku state stumbled upon Pacaritambo , the pacarina of the Maras people, since they originated "without parents" from one of the "windows" called Maras t'uqu . After staying there for many years, the group divided into two: the first were called Tampus , who would leave from another window called Sut'i t'uqu and eventually populate Ollantaytambo ; and the second, who came out of

15617-500: The empire was Quechua , although hundreds of local languages and dialects were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as "The Four Regions" or "The Four United Provinces." Many local forms of worship persisted in the empire, most of them concerning local sacred Huacas , but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti , the sun god and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama . The Incas considered their King,

15778-496: The end of the 19th century due to newly discovered rubber tree forests. The Rio Acre Ecological Station lies in the municipalities of Assis Brasil and Sena Madureira in the state of Acre , Brazil. It contains Amazon forest bounded to the north by an Indian reservation and to the south by the Acre River. It was created to preserve the headwaters of the Acre River. The region was settled by Peruvians between 1870 and 1878, but

15939-401: The ethnic group as a whole in the future, but it also meant "monarch" or "emperor". Kurakas were simply the heads of an ayllu , a group of families with the same common ancestor or place of origin ( Paqarina ), that could differ significantly in size and territory. Meanwhile, the term capac , which meant "powerful", "rich" or "mighty", could be used as in capac kuraka ("powerful lord"),

16100-578: The event in his childhood. At the beginning of his reign, he had to put down another attempted rebellion by the sinchis of the Muyna and Pinagua chiefdoms with the help of Vicaquirao, which earned him the title of Apukispay as his brother's "right arm", the constant rebellions that occurred were likely due to the lack of soldiers in the conquered territories, so after discussing the matter both agreed on leaving garrisons on each annexed land. After this, he conquered around 10 neighbouring ayllus from Cusco and had

16261-450: The event. When Viracocha returned to Cusco, he expressed his desire to retire to his palace in Calca and designate Inca Urco as his successor, who was formally titled " Inca raptin " in his absence. The maskaypacha was transported from Calca to the Inticancha , where the chosen heir began a period of fasting, rituals, and preparations for several days. On the appointed day, he emerged with

16422-461: The fifteenth century, when the pace of conquest began to accelerate, particularly under the rule of the emperor Pachacuti . Under his rule and that of his son, Topa Inca Yupanqui , the Incas came to control most of the Andean region, with a population of 9 to 16 million inhabitants under their rule. Pachacuti also promulgated a comprehensive code of laws to govern his far-flung empire, while consolidating his absolute temporal and spiritual authority as

16583-460: The first parliament was assembled. The newly founded Peruvian Congress named Bolívar dictator of Peru, giving him the power to organize the military. With the help of Antonio José de Sucre , they defeated the larger Spanish army in the Battle of Junín on 6 August 1824 and the decisive Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December of the same year, consolidating the independence of Peru and Upper Peru. Upper Peru

16744-653: The following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the Treaty of Lima , returned Tacna to Peru. Between 1932 and 1933, Peru was engulfed in a year-long war with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas Department and its capital Leticia . In 1941 Peru and Ecuador fought the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War , after which the Rio Protocol sought to formalize

16905-499: The fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero. Almost five years of war ended with the loss of the department of Tarapacá and the provinces of Tacna and Arica , in the Atacama region. Francisco Bolognesi and Miguel Grau are both renowned heros of the war. Originally Chile committed to a referendum for the cities of Arica and Tacna to be held years later, to self determine their national affiliation. However, Chile refused to apply

17066-494: The government made by Inca Roca with the support of the Hanan Cusco dynasty. Inca Roca ( c.  1350  – c.  1380 ) was the first ruler who used the term "Inka" to refer to himself, which meant monarch or emperor, but as is known, it is also used to refer to the ethnic group, and during the empire, to the royalty and some members of the nobility . Before this, it was most likely that Cusco's rulers simply had

17227-520: The help of Bolivia , Chile and Ecuador , sent a declaration of war on Spain. After the battle of Callao on May 2, 1866, the Spanish Navy withdrew from Peru. The government of José Balta was lavish in infrastructure works (construction of the Central Railway ) although the first signs of excess government spending were already perceived. By the 1870s the guano resources had been depleted, the country

17388-479: The highlands near Cuzco. In the early 19th century, while most South American nations were swept by wars of independence , Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar . The economic crises, the loss of power of Spain in Europe,

17549-528: The imminence of a conflict, Manco Capac sought an alliance between opposing chiefdoms. He noticed the sinchi of the Saños , called Sitichuaman . Both examined the situation and decided on the marriage between Sinchi Roca and Mama Coca, daughter of the sinchi. Both groups began to operate in agreement afterwards. Given the situation, the Huallas went to war with their sinchi Apu Cagua in command. However, they suffered

17710-465: The labor population to expand the workforce. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America; most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism , with Spanish clerics believing like Puritan divines of English colonies later that the Native Peoples "had been corrupted by

17871-403: The last window called Qhapaq t'uqu , which was the group under command of Manco Capac , consisting of 10 ayllus . Despite their nomadic character, on their journey they always stopped for a few years to farm in the surrounding areas of nearby villages or independent ayllus. From Pacaritambo , they first stopped at Huanancancha, where Manco Capac took Mama Ocllo in servinacuy ( concubinage );

18032-458: The latter being the grandson of Capac Yupanqui . The people of Caytomarca also revolted against Viracocha by mistreating one of his messengers and telling him that the Sapa Inca was crazy if he thought they would submit to his power since they didn't fear him, so they fortified themselves on the eastern bank of the Urubamba River to await the Inca forces that moved quickly from Calca . When

18193-414: The legend, when the boy cried, blood began to come out of his eyes. Moved by the sight, the chieftain spared his life and sent him to graze herds, from where he was transferred for safety to the capital of the Ayarmaca state, Aguayrocancha . Meanwhile, Inca Roca didn't dare to attack and rescue his son for fear that he would be killed in retaliation, the boy would remain within the Ayarmaca chiefdom for

18354-410: The loyalist army to protect Lima from the threatened invasion by San Martín. On 29 January, de la Serna organized a coup against de la Pazuela, which was recognized by Spain and he was named Viceroy of Peru. This internal power struggle contributed to the success of the liberating army. To avoid a military confrontation, San Martín met the newly appointed viceroy, José de la Serna, and proposed to create

18515-526: The military officers involved in Plan Verde to abide by the military's demands prior to Fujimori's inauguration. Fujimori would go on to adopt many of the policies outlined in Plan Verde, which led to a precitious drop in infliation from 7,650% at the start of 1990 to 139% in 1991 and 57% in 1992. When Fujimori faced opposition to his reform efforts, he dissolved Congress, suspending the judiciary, arresting several opposition leaders and assuming full powers in

18676-420: The more outstanding Chimu and Moche . The Moche, who reached their apogee in the first millennium CE, were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork. The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization; as a loose confederation of walled cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru,

18837-451: The mountain region, which covers almost a third of the country, rain is frequent in summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes. The Peruvian Amazon , covering more than half of the total area of Peru, is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall. Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has

18998-418: The naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until October 8, 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor Huáscar, the main ship of the Peruvian navy commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in the fray and since then became Peru's greatest hero. In 1879 Peru entered

19159-457: The next stop was on Tampuquiro , where possibly Sinchi Roca was born, and then they stopped at Pallata , here Sinchi Roca 's first haircut was celebrated. They continued their advance and reached Quirirmanta , where Manco Capac finally married Mama Ocllo according to the usual rites, apart from whom he had other wives, among them the fierce Mama Huaco. The Incas captured the Huanacauri , which

19320-442: The nitrate and guano territories of southern Peru and Bolivia. In the first stage of the war, the naval campaign, the Peruvian navy repelled the Chilean attack until October 8, 1879, the day in which the naval combat of Angamos was fought, where the Chilean navy with its ships Cochrane, Blanco Encalada, Loa and Covadonga cornered the monitor Huáscar , the main ship of the Peruvian navy, commanded by Admiral AP Miguel Grau, who died in

19481-436: The occasion and tried to gain independence, failing right after the first combat, where the first one died and the second one fled, never to be seen again. After these events, Inca Roca led an expedition through Quiquijana and conquered the town of Caytomarca, which he would eventually lose due to leaving no garrison behind. He also conquered the people of Pumatambo , to the southwest, where he travelled and visited for

19642-415: The offer by sending pieces of gold and silver. Later, he went to conquer the chiefdom of Masca , and the western ayllus of Anta and Cuyo . In the latter, he asked for bird cages as tribute. These were used in rites before going out on military campaigns. The Ayarmaca chiefdom, already recovered from the conflicts provoked by Lloque Yupanqui and having heard the news of the conquests of Cusco, saw in

19803-462: The opportunity offered by the death of their leader, Tocay Capac, in combat. This heavily diminished the Ayarmacas' capability to pose a threat to the Incas for a long time, which allowed him to conquer the territory of the Maras people. Lloque Yupanqui was an astute man, who knew how to maintain good relations with Cusco's neighbour chiefdoms and ayllus in order to secure his territory and avoid unnecessary conflict. He even managed to befriend some of

19964-466: The opposition-controlled legislature and create an "exceptional emergency government." In response, Congress quickly held an emergency session on the same day, during which it voted 101–6 (with 10 abstentions) to remove Castillo from office and replace him with Vice President Dina Boluarte . She became the country's first female president. Castillo was arrested after trying to flee to the Mexican embassy and

20125-536: The port of Paracas under the command of General José de San Martín and Thomas Cochrane , who was serving in the Chilean Navy. Immediately on 26 October, they took control of the town of Pisco . San Martín settled in Huacho on 12 November, where he established his headquarters while Cochrane sailed north and blockaded the port of Callao in Lima. At the same time in the north, Guayaquil was occupied by rebel forces under

20286-612: The project of his uncle by invading the Cunti peoples, which he defeated in just two battles, killing more than 6000 men. Due to his victory, the Quechua chiefdom ( not to be confused with Quechua people ) sent him an embassy with many gifts as a symbol of their alliance. They asked for his protection against the expanding Chanka peoples who threatened them with invasion in Andahuaylas . Because Yupanqui considered them "great warriors", he accepted

20447-457: The rebellion had started, the Incas had two consecutive victories, which prompted a truce that was quickly broken by the rebels. However, during the third battle, the Alcahuisa sinchi was captured and eventually imprisoned for life, while the lands owned by his people were split between the people of Cusco. Satisfied with the victory and having achieved the consolidation of his power around Cusco, Mayta Capac prepared his army for an expedition towards

20608-533: The resulting battle in Paucarcolla ended with the curaca Curi emerging victorious. Viracocha quickly headed to the scene after receiving news of the outcome. The meeting between the two rulers took place in Chucuito , where they swore eternal peace by sharing a kero of chicha as a symbol of their friendship. The kero was transported to a temple by priests in the middle of dances and music being performed to commemorate

20769-468: The rubber-producing territory, south to about the ninth parallel. Peru Peru , officially the Republic of Peru , is a country in western South America . It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia , in the east by Brazil , in the southeast by Bolivia , in the south by Chile , and in the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country , with habitats ranging from

20930-492: The same time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his regime. Odría was succeeded by Manuel Prado Ugarteche . However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, via a coup d'état led by Ricardo Pérez Godoy . Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Fernando Belaúnde Terry who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde

21091-423: The split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the Viceroyalty of Peru ; this reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and Bogotá , while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of

21252-458: The temple of the sun and for his uncle to replace him in power for some years, which may have been the reason behind his name " Where is the powerful one? ". Another possibility is that Mayta was a Puquina term, the meaning of which has been lost. The fourth of his brothers, it is said that in his first years of life, still only a child, he possessed the strength of an adolescent, great physical resistance, courage and bravery. During his reign,

21413-499: The threat by permanently appointing the Willaq Umu himself, still choosing individuals from the Hurin dynasty but ensuring their loyalty beforehand. According to Guaman Poma , he also wanted to "burn all the idols and huacas ", but Mama Runtu prevented this by telling him that he would die if he broke the laws of his ancestors. Once the order was restored, his government was focused on

21574-507: The title of sinchis or curacas , like almost every chiefdom at the time. Due to the political turmoil in the capital, several ayllus rebelled against the new government, among them the Mascas whose chief, Cusi Huaman, was a sympathizer of the Hurin dynasty; the uprising had no effect and after a bloody battle he was jailed in Cusco. The sinchis of the Muyna and Pinagua peoples, Muyna Pongo and Huaman Tupac respectively, took advantage of

21735-417: The traces of the uprising in order to preserve the continuity of power and avoid setting the example for future generations. Once chosen, Hatun Tupac took the name of Viracocha Inca ( c.  1400  – c.  1438 ), supposedly after a dream he had where the god Viracocha appeared, and likely also to strengthen his legitimacy. His coronation was attended by curacas of all the annexed lands, as

21896-510: The tree-line known as puna is home to bushes, cactus , drought-resistant plants such as ichu , and the largest species of bromeliad  – the spectacular Puya raimondii . Kingdom of Cusco The Kingdom of Cusco (sometimes spelled Cuzco and in Quechua Qosqo or Qusqu ), also called the Cusco confederation , was a small kingdom based in the Andean city of Cusco that began as

22057-620: The viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last Inca resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards annihilated the Neo-Inca State in Vilcabamba in 1572. The Indigenous population dramatically collapsed overwhelmingly due to epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish as well as exploitation and socio-economic change. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized

22218-565: The war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party , which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía . The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA). The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for

22379-400: The way back to Andahuaylas . Many years later, he rearmed his army and led another expedition that headed northeast to the Paucartambo River, conquering the surrounding towns but not passing through the " ceja de selva " ( highland jungle ), these were the first coca chacras that the Incas had. One of the first things that Inca Roca did during his government was to replace his home at

22540-474: The world , and the third largest in South America . Peruvian territory was home to several cultures during the ancient and medieval periods, and has one of the longest histories of civilization of any country, tracing its heritage back to the 10th millennium BCE. Notable pre-colonial cultures and civilizations include the Caral–Supe civilization (the earliest civilization in the Americas and considered one of

22701-545: Was also known for vomiting in the middle of the streets. Unconcerned with the feelings of his wife, the Coya, he spent his days with whichever women he desired, whether they were from low social status, young yanaconas , or even mamaconas .To the wives of the noblemen he found attractive he would say "My children, how are they?" implying that he had been with them and her children were not from her husbands. At no time did he try to build his own home, or build structures of any kind, he

22862-423: Was charged with the crime of rebellion. The Boluarte government proved unpopular as she allied herself with the right-wing Congress and the military, betraying her constituents. This resentment led to the 2022–2023 Peruvian political protests , which sought the removal of Boluarte and Congress, immediate general elections and the writing of a new constitution. Authorities responded to the protests violently, with

23023-471: Was divided into four districts: Quinticancha , Chumbicancha , Sairecancha , and Yarambuycancha . When Manco Capac died, his body was mummified by his family ( Chima panaca ). Sinchi Roca ( c.  1230  – c.  1260 ) took charge of Cusco. Although his name, "generous warlord", indicates remarkable participation in the conquest of the valley, during his government he was unable to significantly expand Cusco's territory. Among his works are

23184-495: Was dogged by insurgent groups, most notably Shining Path, which carried out attacks across the country throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Fujimori cracked down on the insurgents and was successful in largely quelling them by the late 1990s, but the fight was marred by atrocities committed by both the Peruvian security forces and the insurgents: the Barrios Altos massacre and La Cantuta massacre by Government paramilitary groups, and

23345-428: Was elected by the most prominent members of an ayllu or chiefdom, and had the primary role to defend it in the event of an attack or invade other lands. It was temporal, but given that periods of conflict in the Andes could last for years or even decades, the term sinchi could be seen as equivalent for the kuraka during wartime. During the exodus from Lake Titicaca , a caravan of Puquina -speaking immigrants from

23506-663: Was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral. Simón Bolívar launched his campaign from the north, liberating the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the Battles of Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha a year later. In July 1822, Bolívar and San Martín gathered in the Guayaquil Conference . Bolívar was left in charge of fully liberating Peru while San Martín retired from politics after

23667-634: Was given to Tocay Capac, with whom he increased his harem. The Sapa Inca left many offspring at the end of his long reign, which were gathered in the Vicaquirao panaca , named after another of his sons, whom he put in charge of it. His reign was one of the best in Cusco's history and served as the foundation of what would become the Inca Empire. Titu Cusi Huallpa took the name of Yahuar Huaca ( c.  1380  – c.  1400 ) "The one who cries blood" when he succeeded his father, in commemoration of

23828-543: Was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise. By 1859, some 41,000 Peruvians had died in the constant civil wars that shook the country since 1829. Thanks to the money from the sale of guano, Peru began to modernize with different public works such as railways; the civil and military bureaucracy grew; The indigenous people stopped paying tribute and the slaves achieved their freedom; The migration policy of Germans, Austrians, Irish and Italians began. On April 5, 1879, Chile declared war on Peru, unleashing

23989-420: Was interrupted by an uprising of the Cunti peoples, who were pressured by the mandatory mitas in favor of the nobility and fearing that the triumph of Cusco would increase their power. They took advantage of a party in Cusco in which Yahuar Huaca was drunk to hit him on the head, which was a signal for all the present Cuntis to rise up in arms. Realizing that it was an insurrection, he went to take refuge at

24150-452: Was invaded by Brazilian rubber collectors during the next decade (during the ' rubber boom ') and became tributary to the rubber markets of Iquitos , Manaus and Pará . In 1899, the Bolivian government established a custom-house at Puerto Alonso , on the Acre river, for the collection of export duties on rubber, which precipitated a conflict with the Brazilian settlers, and finally brought about

24311-405: Was jealousy or a part of Inca Roca 's conspiracy , she would end up poisoning his husband through a golden cup. This led to a political crisis in Cusco, and the ensuing chaos was taken advantage of by the Chanka , who conquered the now-isolated Quechua chiefdom. Capac Yupanqui assigned Quispe Yupanqui as his successor before dying, unfortunately, he was assassinated during the quick overthrow of

24472-519: Was later established as Bolivia. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability. Once independence was proclaimed, San Martín assumed military-political command of the free departments of Peru, under the title of Protector, according to a decree given on August 3, 1821. 74 The works of the Protectorate contributed to the creation of

24633-564: Was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious center in Chavín de Huantar . After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the 1st century CE, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas , Nazca , Wari , and

24794-450: Was put as Willaq Umu , and he chose another named Tarco Huaman as his successor. Tarco Huaman successfully replaced his father, but got only to reign briefly before he got deposed almost immediately by his cousin, Capac Yupanqui . The latter then killed nine of his brothers and rounded up the rest to make them swear allegiance as to ensure his reign. Tarco Huaman was placed in charge of his father's panaca , and would eventually be sent as

24955-479: Was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process. On 3 October 1968 another coup d'état led by a group of officers led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado brought the army to power with the aim of applying a doctrine of "social progress and integral development", nationalist and reformist, influenced by the CEPAL theses on dependence and underdevelopment. Six days after the golpe, Velasco proceeded to nationalize

25116-434: Was sworn in as the new president of Peru after a narrow win in a tightly contested run-off election. That same year, Peru celebrated the bicentenary of independence . Castillo faced multiple impeachment votes during his presidency from the right-wing controlled Congress and on 7 December 2022, just hours before Congress was set to begin a third impeachment effort , Castillo tried to prevent this by attempting to dissolve

25277-433: Was the tradition, and also by some of the neighboring nations. The one who stood out was the lord of the Colla Kingdom , Chuchi Capac, who brought a large number of servants and litters with great wealth. The newly appointed Sapa Inca chose Mama Runtu as his wife, daughter of the chief of Anta , whom with he had his sons Cusi Yupanqui and Capac Yupanqui. The Coya had a shy personality, and so despite her position, she

25438-480: Was to be owned by those who cultivated it, and large landowners were expropriated. The only large properties allowed were cooperatives. Between 1969 and 1976, 325,000 families received land from the state with an average size of 73.6 acres (29.8 hectares). The "revolutionary government" also planned massive investments in education, elevated the Quechua language – spoken by nearly half the population but hitherto despised by

25599-455: Was unable to influence his husband's government to the same degree as some of his concubines, specially Curi Chulpi, from the Sahuasera ayllu, and mother of Inca Urco, the monarch's favorite son, and Inca Socso, who was left in charge of his father's lineage: Socso panaca . Viracocha Inca invaded the valleys of Yucay and Calca , which he swiftly conquered. After this, he had to put down

25760-546: Was under control of the Alcahuisa people, and did the same to the Matagua , where it was celebrated the warachikuy of Sinchi Roca , declaring him an adult. Finally, they planned to capture the Huatanay river, which constitutes the main river of the entire valley of Cusco , and had the presence of many nearby ethnic groups: Huallas , Saños, Antasayas , Lares, Poques , Sahuaseras , and the already mentioned Alcahuisas . Faced with

25921-580: Was written by Fujimori and his supporters without opposition participation. In spite of human rights progress since the time of insurgency, many problems are still visible and show the continued marginalization of those who suffered through the violence of the Peruvian conflict. A caretaker government presided over by Valentín Paniagua took on the responsibility of conducting new presidential and congressional elections. Afterwards Alejandro Toledo became president in 2001 to 2006. On 28 July 2006, former president Alan García became President of Peru after winning

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