A haemal arch , also known as a chevron , is a bony arch on the ventral side of a tail vertebra of a vertebrate . The canal formed by the space between the arch and the vertebral body is the haemal canal . A spinous ventral process emerging from the haemal arch is referred to as the haemal spine .
111-573: Achillobator ( / ə ˌ k ɪ l ə ˈ b eɪ t ɔːr / ə- KIL -ə- BAY -tor ; meaning " Achilles hero") is a genus of large dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived during the Late Cretaceous period about 96 million to 89 million years ago in what is now the Bayan Shireh Formation of Mongolia . The genus is currently monotypic , only including the type species A. giganticus . The first remains were found in 1989 during
222-430: A "horse fighter" or "chariot fighter" according to Homer. Prophecies linked Troilus' fate to that of Troy and so he was ambushed in an attempt to capture him. Yet Achilles, struck by the beauty of both Troilus and his sister Polyxena , and overcome with lust, directed his sexual attentions on the youth—who, refusing to yield, instead found himself decapitated upon an altar-omphalos of Apollo Thymbraios . Later versions of
333-609: A Mongolian-Russian field expedition and later described in 1999. Remains at the type locality of Achillobator may represent additional specimens. It represents the first and largest dromaeosaurid known from the Bayan Shireh Formation. It was a large, heavily-built, ground-dwelling, bipedal carnivore that would have been an active feathered predator hunting with the enlarged sickle claw on each second toe . Measuring around 4.5–5 m (15–16 ft) long and weighing between 250–350 kg (550–770 lb), Achillobator
444-638: A Pre-Greek origin of the name, based among other things on the coexistence of -λλ- and -λ- in epic language, which may account for a palatalized phoneme /l / in the original language. Among the appellations under which Achilles is generally known are the following: Achilles was the son of Thetis —a Nereid and daughter of the Old Man of the Sea —and Peleus , the king of the Myrmidons . Zeus and Poseidon had been rivals for Thetis's hand in marriage until Prometheus ,
555-424: A coarse texture, likely for the articulation with cartilaginous tissue . A large foramen was located from the front to the back, probably acting as a channel for blood vessels and nerves . The radius measured 26 cm (260 mm) long. The femur was highly robust and longer than the tibia, a rare trait in dromaeosaurids, measuring 50.5 cm (505 mm) in length. On the anterior inner surface, there
666-446: A counter-balance to the main body. Lastly, the snout would have been useful for finishing off its prey. With these observations, they established that dromaeosaurids and troodontids were niche partitioned as large and small prey predators, respectively. Achilles In Greek mythology , Achilles ( / ə ˈ k ɪ l iː z / ə- KIL -eez ) or Achilleus ( Ancient Greek : Ἀχιλλεύς , romanized : Achilleús )
777-517: A divine arrow, killing him. According to some accounts, he had married Medea in life, so that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades —as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius ' Argonautica (3rd century BC). Achilles' armour was the object of a feud between Odysseus and Telamonian Ajax (Ajax the greater). They competed for it by giving speeches on why they were
888-405: A dream where Patroclus begs Achilles to hold his funeral, Achilles hosts a series of funeral games in honour of his companion. At the onset of his duel with Hector, Achilles is referred to as the brightest star in the sky, which comes on in the autumn, Orion's dog ( Sirius ); a sign of evil. During the cremation of Patroclus, he is compared to Hesperus , the evening/western star ( Venus ), while
999-546: A few weeks of the decade-long war, and does not narrate Achilles' death. It begins with Achilles' withdrawal from battle after being dishonoured by Agamemnon , the commander of the Achaean forces. Agamemnon has taken a woman named Chryseis as his slave. Her father Chryses , a priest of Apollo , begs Agamemnon to return her to him. Agamemnon refuses, and Apollo sends a plague amongst the Greeks. The prophet Calchas correctly determines
1110-432: A mane ( χαίτη ). Along with other characters, his hair is described with the word xanthḗ ( ξανθή ), which meant ' yellow ', or at times shades thereof, such as brown or auburn , and was used mostly for fair hair. A later Latin account, probably from the 5th century AD, falsely attributed to Dares Phrygius described Achilles as having "... a large chest, a fine mouth, and powerfully formed arms and legs. His head
1221-571: A mortal could craft. Thetis had the gear made for Achilles because his first set was worn by Patroclus when he went to battle and taken by Hector when he killed Patroclus. The Shield of Achilles was also made by the fire god. His legendary spear was given to him by his mentor Chiron before he participated in the Trojan War . It was called the Pelian Spear, which allegedly no other man could wield. A relic claimed to be Achilles' bronze-headed spear
SECTION 10
#17328806819801332-687: A reason that he ravaged their country. The spread and intensity of the hero's veneration among the Greeks that had settled on the northern coast of the Pontus Euxinus , today's Black Sea , appears to have been remarkable. An archaic cult is attested for the Milesian colony of Olbia as well as for an island in the middle of the Black Sea, today identified with Snake Island ( Ukrainian Зміїний, Zmiinyi , near Kiliia , Ukraine). Early dedicatory inscriptions from
1443-454: A slave to the worst of masters than be king of all the dead. But Achilles then asks Odysseus of his son's exploits in the Trojan war, and Odysseus tells him of Neoptolemus' actions. Book 24 of Odyssey gives dead King Agamemnon's ghostly account of Achilles' death: the bleached bones from Achilles' funeral pyre had been mixed with those of Patroclus and put into his mother's golden vase. Also,
1554-635: A spear from each hand; one grazed Achilles' elbow, "drawing a spurt of blood". In the few fragmentary poems of the Epic Cycle which describe the hero's death (i.e. the Cypria , the Little Iliad by Lesches of Pyrrha , the Aethiopis and Iliupersis by Arctinus of Miletus ), there is no trace of any reference to his general invulnerability or his famous weakness at the heel. In the later vase paintings presenting
1665-520: A tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war, Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game ( petteia ). They were absorbed in the game and oblivious to the surrounding battle. The Trojans attacked and reached the heroes, who were saved only by an intervention of Athena. The tomb of Achilles, extant throughout antiquity in Troad , was venerated by Thessalians , but also by Persian expeditionary forces, as well as by Alexander
1776-410: A transitional caudal, the anterior neural spines were elongated and progressively disappeared on posterior caudals. The posterior series of caudals was articulated with long chevrons and had very elongated prezygapophyses (projections of the vertebral arch that connect adjacent vertebrae). The scapulocoracoid was formed by the fusion of the scapula and coracoid . In the posterior area of
1887-407: A very opisthopubic pelvic configuration, Achillobator had a primitive propubic configuration. The large pubic boot had coarse areas on the dorsal surface that served as attachment sites for the m. pubo ischio femoralis internus ventralis. Its lateral surface was very flat and had numerous microstriations that probably originated the m. pubo ischio femoralis externus. The ischium was shorter than
1998-557: A wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that "he that wounded shall heal". Guided by the oracle, he arrived at Argos , where Achilles healed him in order that he might become their guide for the voyage to Troy. According to other reports in Euripides ' lost play about Telephus, he went to Aulis pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held Orestes for ransom,
2109-476: A younger one, usually a teenager. In Patroclus and Achilles' case, Achilles would have been the younger as Patroclus is usually seen as his elder. In Plato's Symposium , the participants in a dialogue about love assume that Achilles and Patroclus were a couple; Phaedrus argues that Achilles was the younger and more beautiful one so he was the beloved and Patroclus was the lover. However, ancient Greek had no words to distinguish heterosexual and homosexual , and it
2220-528: Is a medieval invention. In Dares Phrygius ' Account of the Destruction of Troy , the Latin summary through which the story of Achilles was transmitted to medieval Europe, as well as in older accounts, Troilus was a young Trojan prince, the youngest of King Priam 's and Hecuba 's five legitimate sons (or according other sources, another son of Apollo). Despite his youth, he was one of the main Trojan war leaders,
2331-466: Is commonly recovered as a taxon falling within Dromaeosauridae in cladistic analyses . Achillobator represents one of the largest described dromaeosaurid taxa, reaching up to 4.5–5 m (15–16 ft) long and weighing around 250–350 kg (550–770 lb) in body mass. Although the holotype was found lacking traces of feather integument, strong evidence coming from other relatives suggests
SECTION 20
#17328806819802442-429: Is considered to be one of the largest dromaeosaurs, along with Austroraptor , Dakotaraptor and Utahraptor . Achillobator was a deep-bodied and relatively short-armed dromaeosaurid with stocky and robust legs. Some of the most notable features consisted in the robustly built skeleton—an unusual trait in dromaeosaur dinosaurs, which were generally lightly built animals—such as the deep maxilla and femur, along with
2553-461: Is named after him following the same legend. Linear B tablets attest to the personal name Achilleus in the forms a-ki-re-u and a-ki-re-we , the latter being the dative of the former. The name grew more popular, becoming common soon after the seventh century BC and was also turned into the female form Ἀχιλλεία ( Achilleía ), attested in Attica in the fourth century BC ( IG II² 1617) and, in
2664-529: Is no direct evidence in the text of the Iliad that Achilles and Patroclus were lovers, this theory was expressed by some later authors. Commentators from classical antiquity to the present have often interpreted the relationship through the lens of their own cultures. In 5th-century BC Athens, the intense bond was often viewed in light of the Greek custom of paiderasteia , which is the relationship between an older male and
2775-563: Is often considered to be the sister taxon of the latter. The stocky and short leg ratio of Achillobator indicates that it was not cursorial —an animal adapted for high speed or to maintain said high speeds. Moreover, the robust morphology of the maxilla suggests a predatory behavior based around hunting large prey. During a field exploration examining the outcrops at the Khongil locality in South Central Mongolia in 1989, conducted by
2886-574: Is older and found already in Plautus ' Bacchides . Homer's Iliad is the most famous narrative of Achilles' deeds in the Trojan War. Achilles' wrath (μῆνις Ἀχιλλέως, mênis Achilléōs ) is the central theme of the poem. The first two lines of the Iliad read: οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε, [...] the accursed rage that brought great suffering to the Achaeans, [...] The Homeric epic only covers
2997-432: Is that he fell deeply in love with one of the Trojan princesses, Polyxena . Achilles asks Priam for Polyxena's hand in marriage. Priam is willing because it would mean the end of the war and an alliance with the world's greatest warrior. But while Priam is overseeing the private marriage of Polyxena and Achilles, Paris, who would have to give up Helen if Achilles married his sister, hides in the bushes and shoots Achilles with
3108-450: Is wide on the upper end; the femur is longer than the tibia ; the pelvis is propubic (pubis extends forward towards the head of the animal); the obturator process on the ischium is large and triangular situated on the upper half of ischial shaft; and the boot at distal symphysis of the pubis is developed in a cranial and caudal aspect. The maxilla was deep and robust, and measured about 29 cm (290 mm) in length. Its lateral side
3219-514: The Dnieper-Bug Estuary ; furthermore, at 125 Roman miles from this island, he places a peninsula "which stretches forth in the shape of a sword" obliquely, called Dromos Achilleos (Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος, Achilléōs drómos , ' the Race-course of Achilles ') and considered the place of the hero's exercise or of games instituted by him. This last feature of Pliny's account is considered to be
3330-567: The Dromaeosaurinae . However, other studies place the two in the Velociraptorinae , such as Currie and Evans (2019) and Jasinski et al. ( 2020 ). An unusual result was found by Hartman and colleagues in 2019, where both Utahraptor and Achillobator were found to be outside Dromaeosaurinae and Velociraptorinae, joined by Yixianosaurus , which is usually considered an anchiornithid . The left cladogram follows Cau et al. 2017, while
3441-486: The Greek colonies on the Black Sea ( graffiti and inscribed clay disks, these possibly being votive offerings , from Olbia, the area of Berezan Island and the Tauric Chersonese ) attest the existence of a heroic cult of Achilles from the sixth century BC onwards. The cult was still thriving in the third century CE, when dedicatory stelae from Olbia refer to an Achilles Pontárchēs (Ποντάρχης, roughly 'lord of
Achillobator - Misplaced Pages Continue
3552-522: The acromion process , the scapula had a small tubercle that attached the area for the muscle m. scapulohumeralis in life. The glenoid was located at the bottom area facing to the lateral side. The scapula was relatively elongated and flattened at the scapular blade. The blade is thickened and slightly curved to the inner side following the rounded shape of the rib cage . The coracoid is robust and broad, measuring 16.7 cm (167 mm) long and 14.8 cm (148 mm) in height. The anterior edge had
3663-413: The likely presence of plumage on Achillobator . According to the revised diagnosis by Turner and colleagues in 2012, Achillobator can be distinguished based on the following combination of characteristics and autapomorphies : The promaxillary fenestra is completely exposed; the promaxillary and maxillary fenestrae are elongated and vertically oriented at same level in the maxilla ; metatarsal III
3774-401: The "sickle claw") of most dromaeosaurids, and the old Mongolian word "баатар" ( baatar , meaning hero). However, the description was published in a very preliminary format, as it was incomplete, as well as having issues with preserved elements and numerous typographical errors . Due to a misinterpretation, the pedal ungual II (or sickle claw) was claimed to be preserved and to articulate with
3885-648: The 10th (in the tradition of Niobe 's offspring). The poem ends with a description of Hector's funeral, with the doom of Troy and Achilles himself still to come. Later works, including the Aethiopis (7th century BC) and a work named Posthomerica , composed by Quintus of Smyrna in the fourth century CE, relate further events from the Trojan War . When Penthesilea , queen of the Amazons and daughter of Ares , arrives in Troy, Priam hopes that she will defeat Achilles. After his temporary truce with Priam, Achilles fights and kills
3996-514: The 1st century AD) state that Achilles was invulnerable in all of his body except for one heel. According to that myth, when his mother Thetis dipped him in the river Styx as an infant, she held him by one of his heels, leaving it untouched by the waters and thus his only vulnerable body part. Alluding to these legends, the term Achilles' heel has come to mean a point of weakness which can lead to downfall, especially in someone or something with an otherwise strong constitution. The Achilles tendon
4107-531: The 500 BC Polyxena sarcophagus , which depicts the sacrifice of Polyxena near the tumulus of Achilles. Strabo (13.1.32) also suggested that such a cult of Achilles existed in Troad: Near the Sigeium is a temple and monument of Achilles, and monuments also of Patroclus and Anthlochus . The Ilienses perform sacred ceremonies in honour of them all, and even of Ajax . But they do not worship Hercules , alleging as
4218-760: The Great and the Roman emperor Caracalla . Achilles' cult was also to be found at other places, e. g. on the island of Astypalaea in the Sporades , in Sparta which had a sanctuary, in Elis and in Achilles' homeland Thessaly , as well as in the Magna Graecia cities of Tarentum , Locri and Croton , accounting for an almost Panhellenic cult to the hero. The cult of Achilles is illustrated in
4329-559: The Mongolian and Russian Paleontological Expedition in the Gobi Desert , many dinosaur fossil discoveries were made. About 5.6 km (5,600 m) away from this locality, a large and associated, but mostly disarticulated partial theropod skeleton was discovered in sediments of the Burkhant locality, Bayan Shireh Formation . No other findings were made by the expedition at this locality. It
4440-596: The Scaean Gates leading to Troy (with an arrow to the heel according to Statius). In book 23, the sad spirit of dead Patroclus visits Achilles just as he drifts off into slumber, requesting that his bones be placed with those of Achilles in his golden vase, a gift of his mother. In book 11 of the Odyssey , Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as "blessed in life, blessed in death", responds that he would rather be
4551-607: The Shine Us Khuduk locality of the Bayan Shireh Formation. Among various elements, an isolated pedal phalange II-2 (second phalanx of the second digit of the foot) shares similar traits to that of Achillobator and " Troodon " . The remains were discovered during excavations of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences in 2005 and 2006. The pelvic girdle of Achillobator features plesiomorphic (primitive) saurischian characteristics compared to other dromaeosaurids. For instance,
Achillobator - Misplaced Pages Continue
4662-522: The advances of Zeus, pointing out that Thetis was so loyal to Hera's marriage bond that she coolly rejected the father of gods. Thetis, although a daughter of the sea-god Nereus , was also brought up by Hera, further explaining her resistance to the advances of Zeus. Zeus was furious and decreed that she would never marry an immortal. According to the Achilleid , written by Statius in the 1st century AD, and to non-surviving previous sources , when Achilles
4773-456: The analysis might be correct on primitive dromaeosaurids (such as Microraptor ) being tree-climbers, however, this does not explain why giant animals like Achillobator or Utahraptor retained sickle claws as they were likely far too large to have climbed trees with any great faculty. Mackovicky suggested that larger dromaeosaurids adapted the claw to be used exclusively for a more aggressive predatory behavior. The striking resemblance between
4884-404: The anterior articulation facet of the centrum developed over the posterior facet. These characteristics are interpreted as indicators of an S-shaped neck, as seen in most maniraptorans . The dorsal vertebrae were stocky and had pleurocoels at the lateral surfaces, increasing in posterior vertebrae. Their central articulation facets were rounded and concave in shape. The neural processes of
4995-478: The arboreal microraptorians or amphibious halszkaraptorines . Eudromaeosauria was first defined as a node-based clade by Nicholas R. Longrich and Philip J. Currie in 2009 as the most inclusive natural group containing Dromaeosaurus , Velociraptor , Deinonychus , and Saurornitholestes , their most recent common ancestor and all of its other descendants. The various "subfamilies" have also been re-defined as clades, usually defined as all species closer to
5106-519: The basis of the cyclic epic Aethiopis , which was composed after the Iliad , possibly in the 7th century BC. The Aethiopis is now lost, except for scattered fragments quoted by later authors. The exact nature of Achilles' relationship with Patroclus has been a subject of dispute in both the classical period and modern times. In the Iliad , it appears to be the model of a deep and loyal friendship. Homer does not suggest that Achilles and his close friend Patroclus had sexual relations. Although there
5217-524: The battle is inevitable. Wanting to go down fighting, he charges at Achilles with his only weapon, his sword, but misses. Accepting his fate, Hector begs Achilles not to spare his life, but to treat his body with respect after killing him. Achilles tells Hector it is hopeless to expect that of him, declaring that, "my rage, my fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw – such agonies you have caused me." Achilles then kills Hector and drags his corpse by its heels behind his chariot. After having
5328-454: The battlefield, killing Memnon. Consequently, Eos will not let the sun rise until Zeus persuades her. The fight between Achilles and Memnon over Antilochus echoes that of Achilles and Hector over Patroclus, except that Memnon (unlike Hector) was also the son of a goddess. Many Homeric scholars argued that episode inspired many details in the Iliad ' s description of the death of Patroclus and Achilles' reaction to it. The episode then formed
5439-528: The beaches and assault the Greek ships. With the Greek forces on the verge of absolute destruction, Patroclus leads the Myrmidons into battle, wearing Achilles' armour, although Achilles remains at his camp. Patroclus succeeds in pushing the Trojans back from the beaches, but is killed by Hector before he can lead a proper assault on the city of Troy. After receiving the news of the death of Patroclus from Antilochus ,
5550-554: The bones of Antilochus , who had become closer to Achilles than any other following Patroclus' death, were separately enclosed. The customary funeral games of a hero were performed, and a massive tomb or mound was built on the Hellespont for approaching seagoers to celebrate. Achilles was represented in the Aethiopis as living after his death in the island of Leuke at the mouth of the river Danube . Another version of Achilles' death
5661-441: The bravest after Achilles to their Trojan prisoners, who, after considering both men's presentations, decided Odysseus was more deserving of the armour. Furious, Ajax cursed Odysseus, which earned him the ire of Athena, who temporarily made Ajax so mad with grief and anguish that he began killing sheep, thinking them his comrades. After a while, when Athena lifted his madness and Ajax realized that he had actually been killing sheep, he
SECTION 50
#17328806819805772-405: The burning of the funeral pyre lasts until Phosphorus , the morning/eastern star (also Venus) has set (descended). With the assistance of the god Hermes (Argeiphontes), Hector's father Priam goes to Achilles' tent to plead with Achilles for the return of Hector's body so that he can be buried. Achilles relents and promises a truce for the duration of the funeral, lasting 9 days with a burial on
5883-531: The cattle of Aeneas , sacked neighbouring cities (such as Pedasus and Lyrnessus , where the Greeks capture the queen Briseis ) and killed Tenes , a son of Apollo , as well as Priam's son Troilus in the sanctuary of Apollo Thymbraios ; however, the romance between Troilus and Chryseis described in Geoffrey Chaucer 's Troilus and Criseyde and in William Shakespeare 's Troilus and Cressida
5994-417: The center of the teeth, although the anterior serrations had 17 to 20 denticles per 5 mm (0.50 cm). The dimensions of the maxilla suggest that Achillobator had a relatively large skull compared to those of carnosaurs . The vertebral column was composed of large and robust cervical, dorsal, and caudal vertebrae. The anterior series of cervical vertebrae were sharply angled in development, with
6105-440: The commander of the mythical tribe of the Myrmidons . Achilles' most notable feat during the Trojan War was the slaying of the Trojan prince Hector outside the gates of Troy . Although the death of Achilles is not presented in the Iliad , other sources concur that he was killed near the end of the Trojan War by Paris , who shot him with an arrow. Later legends (beginning with Statius ' unfinished epic Achilleid , written in
6216-414: The connected ligaments to the tibia and fibular head in life. Metatarsals III and IV were stocky, measuring 23.4 cm (234 mm) and 20.9 cm (209 mm), respectively, indicating that the length of the metatarsus was under the 50% of the tibial length. As in other maniraptorans, the metatarsals were closely united. The top end of metatarsal III was side-to-side flattened and not pinched at
6327-467: The court, thus giving his identity away. According to the Iliad , Achilles arrived at Troy with 50 ships, each carrying 50 Myrmidons . He appointed five leaders (each leader commanding 500 Myrmidons): Menesthius, Eudorus , Peisander, Phoenix and Alcimedon. When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in Mysia , ruled by King Telephus . In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus
6438-620: The death of Achilles, the arrow (or in many cases, arrows) hit his torso. Peleus entrusted Achilles to Chiron , who lived on Mount Pelion and was known as the most righteous of the Centaurs , to be reared. In some accounts, Achilles' original name was "Ligyron" and he was later named Achilles by his tutor Chiron. According to Homer, Achilles grew up in Phthia with his childhood companion Patroclus . Homer further writes that Achilles taught Patroclus what he himself had been taught by Chiron, including
6549-404: The distinctive shape of its haemal arches, which were forked to have both an anterior and posterior process. Though once thought to be a specialized characteristic of Diplodocus and its close relatives, forked chevrons are now known to have been widespread among sauropod dinosaurs, although titanosauriform sauropods returned to the unforked condition. This vertebrate anatomy –related article
6660-427: The dorsal vertebrae show resemblance to those of large ratites such as the extinct moa and extant emu , ostrich , and cassowary , and they had protruding interspinous ligaments scars that indicates a robust and similar back to those birds. In all caudal vertebrae , the centrum was amphiplatian (flat on both ends) with the posterior articulation facet being more concave than the anterior one. As indicated by
6771-569: The feet and legs of dromaeosaurids and those of accipitrid birds of prey , led Fowler et al. 2011 to propose that dromaeosaurids hunted in a similar way to those of raptorial birds. They found that the feet and legs of dromaeosaurs resemble those of eagles and hawks by having an enlarged second claw and a similar range of flexion, but the metatarsals share more resemblance to those of owls . The model RPR (Raptor Prey Restraint), proposes that dromaeosaurs leaped into their prey , immobilizing it with their body weight, and then hold it tightly with
SECTION 60
#17328806819806882-426: The field, killing many men in his rage but always seeking out Hector. Achilles even engages in battle with the river god Scamander , who has become angry that Achilles is choking his waters with all the men he has killed. The god tries to drown Achilles but is stopped by Hera and Hephaestus. Zeus himself takes note of Achilles' rage and sends the gods to restrain him so that he will not go on to sack Troy itself before
6993-457: The flames with only a burnt foot, and confided him to the centaur Chiron. Later Chiron exhumed the body of the Damysus , who was the fastest of all the giants, removed the ankle, and incorporated it into Achilles' burnt foot. In Homer's Iliad , Achilles is portrayed as tall and striking, with strength and looks that were unmatched among the Greek warriors. Homer describes him as having long hair or
7104-455: The fore-thinker, warned Zeus of a prophecy (originally uttered by Themis , goddess of divine law) that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed Peleus. There is a tale which offers an alternative version of these events: In the Argonautica (4.760) Zeus' sister and wife Hera alludes to Thetis' chaste resistance to
7215-469: The form Achillia , on a stele in Halicarnassus as the name of a female gladiator fighting an "Amazon". Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of ἄχος ( áchos ), 'distress, pain, sorrow, grief' and λαός ( laós ), 'people, soldiers, nation', resulting in a proto-form *Akhí-lāu̯os , 'he who has the people distressed' or 'he whose people have distress'. The grief or distress of
7326-408: The function of the sickle claw of dromaeosaurids by analyzing the biomechanics of how stresses and strains would be distributed along the claws and into the limbs, and using comparisons within the curvature of the dromaeosaurid sickle claw on the foot with curvature in modern birds and mammals. They found that they were ideal for climbing and for a ground-dwelling life style. Peter Mackovicky stated that
7437-503: The groups namesake than to Dromaeosaurus or any namesakes of other sub-clades. Most phylogenetic analyses recover Achillobator as a relative of Utahraptor . Similarities between Achillobator and Utahraptor were found by osteological reexamination of Utahraptor specimens, supporting their close relationship. The exact position of these two vary; during the description of Halszkaraptor in 2017 , Achillobator and Utahraptor were recovered as close relatives of Dromaeosaurus in
7548-409: The guise of a pedlar selling women's clothes and jewellery and placed a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Greek campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women. While the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend
7659-575: The iconic spit , called today Tendra (or Kosa Tendra and Kosa Djarilgatch ), situated between the mouth of the Dnieper and Karkinit Bay , but which is hardly 125 Roman miles ( c. 185 km) away from the Dnieper-Bug estuary , as Pliny states (to the "Race-course" he gives a length of 80 miles, c. 120 km, whereas the spit measures c. 70 km today). Chevron (anatomy) Blood vessels to and from
7770-420: The ilium and pubis, measuring 37.8 cm (378 mm) in length. A large ridge was formed on its shaft and expanded to the anterior edge, likely forming the m. adductor femoris in life. This ridge-like structure was heavily built compared to other dromaeosaurids. At the lateral sides, the surface was very rough, possibly attaching m. flexor tibialis internus-1 in life. In its original description, Achillobator
7881-412: The king to appease the warrior. Agamemnon agrees and sends Odysseus and two other chieftains, Ajax and Phoenix . They promise that, if Achilles returns to battle, Agamemnon will return the captive Briseis and other gifts. Achilles rejects all Agamemnon offers him and simply urges the Greeks to sail home as he is planning to do. The Trojans, led by Hector , subsequently push the Greek army back toward
7992-416: The large, sickle-shaped claws; afterwards, the dromaeosaur would start to feed on the animal while it's still alive and the death will eventually come from blood loss and organ failure . The arms or "wings", that were likely covered in long feathers, may have been flapped by the dromaeosaur in order to stabilize its balance while restraining prey, along with this, the long, feathered tail probably worked as
8103-444: The left tibia , left metatarsals III and IV, manual and pedal phalanges with some unguals , the right scapulocoracoid , an isolated radius , two ribs , and caudal chevrons . It was collected and prepared by the assistant paleontologist, Namsarai Batulseen , and stored as MNUFR-15 . Ten years later, the specimen was formally described in 1999 and became the holotype for the new genus and species Achillobator giganticus . It
8214-406: The m. caudofemoralis were located at the inner surface of the ilium. On the anterior edge were microstriations that likely gave form to the m. iliofemoralis in life, behind to this area, traces of the m. ilio tibialis-2 were also present. The pubis measured 54.8 cm (548 mm) long and is very straight, having a large pubic boot (a wide expansion at the end). While other dromaeosaurids had
8325-490: The medical arts. Thetis foretold that her son's fate was either to gain glory and die young, or to live a long but uneventful life in obscurity. Achilles chose the former, and decided to take part in the Trojan War. According to Photius , the sixth book of the New History by Ptolemy Hephaestion reported that Thetis burned in a secret place the children she had by Peleus. When she had Achilles, Peleus noticed, tore him from
8436-503: The mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. None of the sources before Statius make any reference to this general invulnerability. To the contrary, in the Iliad , Homer mentions Achilles being wounded: in Book 21 the Paeonian hero Asteropaios , son of Pelagon , challenged Achilles by the river Scamander . He was ambidextrous, and cast
8547-437: The name " Pyrrha " (the red-haired girl), Cercysera or Aissa ("swift" ). With Lycomedes' daughter Deidamia , with whom he had begun a relationship, Achilles there fathered two sons, Neoptolemus (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's possible alias) and Oneiros. According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet Calchas that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. Odysseus went to Skyros in
8658-681: The name obtains a double meaning in the poem: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring distress to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief of war. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. Some researchers deem the name a loan word , possibly from a Pre-Greek language. Achilles' descent from the Nereid Thetis and a similarity of his name with those of river deities such as Acheron and Achelous have led to speculations about his being an old water divinity ( see § Worship and heroic cult , below ). Robert S. P. Beekes has suggested
8769-469: The pedal phalanx II, but this was corrected by Senter in 2007 and this ungual actually represents a manual one. Turner and colleagues, in 2012, during their large revision of Dromaeosauridae, stated that the describing paper of Achillobator was likely published without the knowledge of the two latter paleontologists, as indicated by a draft left in Mongolia in 1997. On August 13, 1993, a large dromaeosaur claw
8880-402: The pedal unguals may have come from a dromaeosaurid-grade dinosaur. However, given that the specimen was actually found in semiarticulation, as well as all the elements being the same color and preservation quality, the assignment of remains to a single individual is supported. Despite the fact that Achillobator features unusual and primitive characteristics compared to other dromaeosaurids, it
8991-424: The people is a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (and frequently by Achilles himself). Achilles' role as the hero of grief or distress forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of him as the hero of κλέος kléos ('glory', usually in war). Furthermore, laós has been construed by Gregory Nagy , following Leonard Palmer , to mean 'a corps of soldiers', a muster . With this derivation,
9102-416: The posterolateral surface at the proximal end of the femur. In the inner side, on the proximal third part of the shaft, a coarse, concave area likely attached m. pubo ischio femoralis externus-3. Below this area, a small, convex tubercle attended the insertion for m. pubo ischio femoralis-2. The tibia was less robust than the femur, but straighter, measuring 49 cm (490 mm) in length. The surface of
9213-493: The primitive pelvis, having a vertically oriented pubis that differs from most other dromaeosaurids. Achillobator is classified as a dromaeosaurid taxon, more specifically within Eudromaeosauria , a group of hypercarnivorous dromaeosaurids that were mainly terrestrial instead of arboreal or amphibious. In most cladistic analyses, Achillobator is recovered as a close relative of Dromaeosaurus and Utahraptor , although it
9324-406: The pubis is aligned vertically and has a relatively large pubic boot (a wide expansion at the end), unlike most other dromaeosaurids, where a generally a much smaller boot is seen. The preserved vertebrae are very robust and feature a series of pleurocoels. The above differences led Burnham and team in 2000 to suggest that the holotype of Achillobator represents a paleontological chimera and only
9435-513: The ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. Odysseus reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed. According to the Cypria (the part of the Epic Cycle that tells the events of the Trojan War before Achilles' wrath), when the Achaeans desired to return home, they were restrained by Achilles, who afterwards attacked
9546-583: The right cladogram follows Jasinski et al. 2020: Bambiraptor Tianyuraptor Achillobator Dromaeosaurus Utahraptor Adasaurus Deinonychus Saurornitholestes Velociraptor Linheraptor Tsaagan Saurornitholestes Atrociraptor Dakotaraptor Dromaeosaurus Boreonykus Bayan Shireh dromaeosaurid Deinonychus Adasaurus Utahraptor Achillobator Acheroraptor Velociraptor Dineobellator Tsaagan Linheraptor Perle and team pointed out in 1999 that
9657-559: The sea', or 'lord of the Pontus Euxinus '), who was invoked as a protector of the city of Olbia, venerated on par with Olympian gods such as the local Apollo Prostates, Hermes Agoraeus, or Poseidon . Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) in his Natural History mentions a "port of the Achæi" and an "island of Achilles", famous for the tomb of that "man" ( portus Achaeorum, insula Achillis, tumulo eius viri clara ), situated somewhat nearby Olbia and
9768-420: The shaft center was smooth, without traces of muscles. In front and towards the back surface of the cnemial crest , however, a coarse and microsculptured area worked as the attachment for m. ilio tibialis and ambiens. Additional tissue traces in the tibia were located on the lower surface and towards the posterior aspect. Here, a depression with a somewhat coarse surface likely attached prominent aponeurosis of
9879-490: The son of Nestor, Achilles grieves over his beloved companion's death. His mother Thetis comes to comfort the distraught Achilles. She persuades Hephaestus to make new armour for him, in place of the armour that Patroclus had been wearing, which was taken by Hector. The new armour includes the Shield of Achilles , described in great detail in the poem. Enraged over the death of Patroclus, Achilles ends his refusal to fight and takes
9990-426: The source of the troubles but will not speak unless Achilles vows to protect him. Achilles does so, and Calchas declares that Chryseis must be returned to her father. Agamemnon consents, but then commands that Achilles' slave Briseis , the daughter of Briseus , be brought to him to replace Chryseis. Angry at the dishonour of having his plunder and glory taken away (and, as he says later, because he loves Briseis), with
10101-476: The story suggested Troilus was accidentally killed by Achilles in an over-ardent lovers' embrace. In this version of the myth, Achilles' death therefore came in retribution for this sacrilege. Ancient writers treated Troilus as the epitome of a dead child mourned by his parents. Had Troilus lived to adulthood, the First Vatican Mythographer claimed, Troy would have been invincible; however, the motif
10212-703: The structure of the hindlimbs and pelvic region of Achillobator indicates that the animal had massive thighs and robustly built legs suited for moderate fast-running. In addition, the prominent pelvis of Achillobator has its own specialized femoral muscle retractors that may indicate a strong ability for leaping. In 2016, Scott Persons IV and Currie examined the limb proportion of numerous theropods and found that compsognathids , troodontids and tyrannosauroids were cursorial animals with many taxa recovered with relatively high CLP (cursorial-limb-proportion) scores. Dromaeosaurids however, were recovered with low CLP scores, with Achillobator scoring −5.3 suggesting that it
10323-417: The tail run through the arch. In reptiles, the caudofemoralis longus muscle, one of the main muscles involved in locomotion, attaches to the lateral sides of the haemal arches. In 1956, Alfred Sherwood Romer hypothesized that the position of the first haemal arch was sexually dimorphic in crocodilians and dinosaurs. However, subsequent research established that the size and position of the first haemal arch
10434-400: The time allotted for its destruction, seeming to show that the unhindered rage of Achilles can defy fate itself. Finally, Achilles finds his prey. Achilles chases Hector around the wall of Troy three times before Athena , in the form of Hector's favorite and dearest brother, Deiphobus , persuades Hector to stop running and fight Achilles face to face. After Hector realizes the trick, he knows
10545-468: The upper end, thus lacking an arctometatarsalian (pinched upper end) condition. The lower end of metatarsal IV had a joint where motion was restricted to one plane, and the lateral condyle was short. The pelvis was formed by the pubis, ilium, and ischium bones. The ilium was prominently tall, measuring 51.3 cm (513 mm) in length and 28.8 cm (288 mm) in height with the preacetabular process situated from top to bottom. Both insertions for
10656-465: The urging of his mother Thetis, Achilles refuses to fight or lead his troops alongside the other Greek forces. At the same time, burning with rage over Agamemnon's theft, Achilles prays to Thetis to convince Zeus to help the Trojans gain ground in the war, so that he may regain his honour. As the battle turns against the Greeks, thanks to the influence of Zeus, Nestor declares that the Trojans are winning because Agamemnon has angered Achilles, and urges
10767-495: The warrior queen, only to grieve over her death later. Initially taken aback, he did not fight as intensely as usual. Once he realized that his distraction was endangering his life, he refocused and killed her. Following the death of Patroclus, Nestor's son Antilochus becomes Achilles' closest companion. When Memnon , son of the Dawn Goddess Eos and king of Ethiopia , slays Antilochus, Achilles once more obtains revenge on
10878-495: Was a hero of the Trojan War who was known as being the greatest of all the Greek warriors. The central character in Homer 's Iliad , he was the son of the Nereid Thetis and Peleus , king of Phthia and famous Argonaut . Achilles was raised in Phthia along with his childhood companion Patroclus and received his education by the centaur Chiron . In the Iliad , he is presented as
10989-472: Was a large, sculptured and concave surface that likely worked as the insertion for the m. iliofemoralis internus in life, and the lesser trochanter had the insertion for the m. pubo ischio femoralis on the lower edge. On the upper lateral surface of the femur, bottom-oriented to the greater trochanter , there was a tubercle that formed the attachment for the m. iliofemoralis . Insertions for m. ilio trochantericus and ischio trochantericus were located on
11100-489: Was assumed that a man could both desire handsome young men and have sex with women. Many pairs of men throughout history have been compared to Achilles and Patroclus to imply a homosexual relationship. The death of Achilles, even if considered solely as it occurred in the oldest sources, is a complex one, with many different versions. Starting with the oldest account, In book 22 of the Iliad , Hector predicts with his last dying breath that Paris and Apollo will slay him at
11211-406: Was born Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river Styx ; however, he was left vulnerable at the part of the body by which she held him: his left heel (see Achilles' heel , Achilles tendon ) . It is not clear if this version of events was known earlier. In another version of this story, Thetis anointed the boy in ambrosia and put him on top of a fire in order to burn away
11322-469: Was covered with long wavy chestnut-colored hair. Though mild in manner, he was very fierce in battle. His face showed the joy of a man richly endowed." Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man dressed as a princess or at least a girl at the court of Lycomedes , king of Skyros . There, Achilles, properly disguised, lived among Lycomedes' daughters, perhaps under
11433-418: Was found at the Burkhant locality, which is the type locality of Achillobator , by a Japanese -Mongolian joint paleontological expedition. In 2010, paleontologist Mahito Watabe and colleagues reported that additional postcranial elements remains were found, all of which belonging to a large-sized dromaeosaurid. In 2007, Mongolian paleontologist Rinchen Barsbold and team reported new dinosaur fossil findings at
11544-407: Was found in fine-grained, medium sandstone /gray mudstone that was deposited dating back to the Late Cretaceous . The specimen was found preserving a left maxilla with nine teeth and two empty alveoli , four cervical vertebrae , three dorsal vertebrae , eight caudal vertebrae , a nearly complete pelvic girdle compromising both pubes , the right ilium , the right ischium , both femora ,
11655-473: Was identified as a dromaeosaurid taxon. The description was performed by Mongolian paleontologist Altangerel Perle and North American paleontologists Mark A. Norell and James M. Clark. In terms of etymology , the generic name , Achillobator , is derived from the Latin word "Achillis" ( genitive singular of Achilles ), in reference to the large Achilles tendon that supported the second pedal ungual (known as
11766-425: Was not adapted to maintain high speeds for extended amounts of time. In 2009 Longrich and Currie suggested that while other dromaeosaurids filled a variety of specialized ecological niches like the slender unenlagiines , eudromaeosaurs, such as Achillobator , retained a conservative life-style and filled the niche of large-bodied predators of often medium to large-sized prey. Manning and team in 2009 tested
11877-426: Was not sexually dimorphic in crocodilians and found no evidence of significant variation in tyrannosaurid dinosaurs, indicating that haemal arches could not be used to distinguish between sexes after all. Haemal arches play an important role in the taxonomy of sauropod dinosaurs , as sauropods exhibit a wide range of morphologies of the haemal arches. In 1878, Othniel Marsh named the sauropod Diplodocus after
11988-573: Was placed as a close relative of Dromaeosaurus with an ambiguous position in the family. In more recent and solid research Achillobator is classified within the Dromaeosauridae , a group of very bird-like, maniraptoran dinosaurs, being placed in the Eudromaeosauria, a group of dromaeosaurids that were obligate terrestrial and hypercarnivore animals, better known as the "true dromaeosaurids". They strongly differ from other dromaeosaurs, such as
12099-486: Was preserved for centuries in the temple of Athena on the acropolis of Phaselis , Lycia, a port on the Pamphylian Gulf. The city was visited in 333 BC by Alexander the Great , who envisioned himself as the new Achilles and carried the Iliad with him, but his court biographers do not mention the spear; however, it was shown in the time of Pausanias in the 2nd century CE. Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested
12210-450: Was smooth compared to the dorsal areas, but had a robust constitution. It had approximately 11 alveoli (sockets that held the roots of teeth). The teeth of Achillobator displayed marked homodonty (teeth of similar shape and size) and they were serrated and recurved with the posterior serrations being slightly larger than the anterior serrations. Along with the posterior serrations were 15 or 18 denticles per 5 mm (0.50 cm) near
12321-474: Was so ashamed that he committed suicide. Odysseus eventually gave the armour to Neoptolemus , the son of Achilles. When Odysseus encounters the shade of Ajax much later in the House of Hades ( Odyssey 11.543–566), Ajax is still so angry about the outcome of the competition that he refuses to speak to Odysseus. The armour they fought for was made by Hephaestus and thus much stronger and more beautiful than any armour
#979020