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97-466: 475 11927 ENSG00000177556 ENSMUSG00000018585 O00244 O08997 NM_004045 NM_009720 NP_004036 NP_033850 ATOX1 is a copper metallochaperone protein that is encoded by the ATOX1 gene in humans. In mammals , ATOX1 plays a key role in copper homeostasis as it delivers copper from the cytosol to transporters ATP7A and ATP7B . Homologous proteins are found in

194-573: A Gilman reagent . These can undergo substitution with alkyl halides to form coupling products ; as such, they are important in the field of organic synthesis . Copper(I) acetylide is highly shock-sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot–Chodkiewicz coupling and the Sonogashira coupling . Conjugate addition to enones and carbocupration of alkynes can also be achieved with organocopper compounds. Copper(I) forms

291-514: A concentration gradient , a change in pressure over a distance is called a pressure gradient , and a change in temperature over a distance is called a temperature gradient . The word diffusion derives from the Latin word, diffundere , which means "to spread out". A distinguishing feature of diffusion is that it depends on particle random walk , and results in mixing or mass transport without requiring directed bulk motion. Bulk motion, or bulk flow,

388-696: A covalent character and are relatively weak. This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper. At the macroscopic scale, introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice , such as grain boundaries, hinders flow of the material under applied stress, thereby increasing its hardness. For this reason, copper is usually supplied in a fine-grained polycrystalline form, which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms. The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity ( 59.6 × 10   S /m ) and high thermal conductivity, second highest (second only to silver) among pure metals at room temperature. This

485-406: A ligand exchange mechanism, where Cu(I) transiently adopts a 3-coordinate geometry with cysteine ligands from ATOX1 and the associated transporter. The ligand exchange mechanism allows for faster exchange than a diffusion mechanism and imparts specificity for both the metal and transporter. Since the ligand exchange accelerates that transfer and the reaction has a shallow thermodynamic gradient, it

582-636: A nickel ) consists of 75% copper and 25% nickel in homogeneous composition. Prior to the introduction of cupronickel, which was widely adopted by countries in the latter half of the 20th century, alloys of copper and silver were also used, with the United States using an alloy of 90% silver and 10% copper until 1965, when circulating silver was removed from all coins with the exception of the half dollar—these were debased to an alloy of 40% silver and 60% copper between 1965 and 1970. The alloy of 90% copper and 10% nickel, remarkable for its resistance to corrosion,

679-407: A pinkish-orange color . Copper is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, as a building material , and as a constituent of various metal alloys , such as sterling silver used in jewelry , cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins , and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement. Copper is one of the few metals that can occur in nature in

776-425: A spin of 3 ⁄ 2 . The other isotopes are radioactive , with the most stable being Cu with a half-life of 61.83 hours. Seven metastable isomers have been characterized; Cu is the longest-lived with a half-life of 3.8 minutes. Isotopes with a mass number above 64 decay by β , whereas those with a mass number below 64 decay by β . Cu , which has

873-399: A blast furnace. A potential source of copper is polymetallic nodules, which have an estimated concentration 1.3%. Like aluminium , copper is recyclable without any loss of quality, both from raw state and from manufactured products. In volume, copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium. An estimated 80% of all copper ever mined is still in use today. According to

970-459: A blue crystalline penta hydrate , the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory. It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture . Polyols , compounds containing more than one alcohol functional group , generally interact with cupric salts. For example, copper salts are used to test for reducing sugars . Specifically, using Benedict's reagent and Fehling's solution the presence of

1067-709: A directly usable metallic form ( native metals ). This led to very early human use in several regions, from c.  8000 BC . Thousands of years later, it was the first metal to be smelted from sulfide ores, c.  5000 BC ; the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold, c.  4000 BC ; and the first metal to be purposely alloyed with another metal, tin , to create bronze , c.  3500 BC . Commonly encountered compounds are copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to such minerals as azurite , malachite , and turquoise , and have been used widely and historically as pigments. Copper used in buildings, usually for roofing, oxidizes to form

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1164-432: A fundamental law, for the operation of diffusion in a single element of space". He asserted a deep analogy between diffusion and conduction of heat or electricity, creating a formalism similar to Fourier's law for heat conduction (1822) and Ohm's law for electric current (1827). Robert Boyle demonstrated diffusion in solids in the 17th century by penetration of zinc into a copper coin. Nevertheless, diffusion in solids

1261-457: A green patina of compounds called verdigris . Copper is sometimes used in decorative art , both in its elemental metal form and in compounds as pigments. Copper compounds are used as bacteriostatic agents , fungicides , and wood preservatives . Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase . In molluscs and crustaceans , copper

1358-495: A half-life of 12.7 hours, decays both ways. Cu and Cu have significant applications. Cu is used in Cu Cu-PTSM as a radioactive tracer for positron emission tomography . Copper is produced in massive stars and is present in the Earth's crust in a proportion of about 50 parts per million (ppm). In nature, copper occurs in

1455-683: A layer of brown-black copper oxide which, unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air, protects the underlying metal from further corrosion ( passivation ). A green layer of verdigris (copper carbonate) can often be seen on old copper structures, such as the roofing of many older buildings and the Statue of Liberty . Copper tarnishes when exposed to some sulfur compounds, with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides . There are 29 isotopes of copper. Cu and Cu are stable, with Cu comprising approximately 69% of naturally occurring copper; both have

1552-532: A natural color other than gray or silver. Pure copper is orange-red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air. This is due to the low plasma frequency of the metal, which lies in the red part of the visible spectrum, causing it to absorb the higher-frequency green and blue colors. As with other metals, if copper is put in contact with another metal in the presence of an electrolyte , galvanic corrosion will occur. Copper does not react with water, but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form

1649-407: A red-brown precipitate with copper(II) salts. Compounds that contain a carbon-copper bond are known as organocopper compounds. They are very reactive towards oxygen to form copper(I) oxide and have many uses in chemistry . They are synthesized by treating copper(I) compounds with Grignard reagents , terminal alkynes or organolithium reagents ; in particular, the last reaction described produces

1746-451: A rich variety of compounds, usually with oxidation states +1 and +2, which are often called cuprous and cupric , respectively. Copper compounds promote or catalyse numerous chemical and biological processes. As with other elements, the simplest compounds of copper are binary compounds, i.e. those containing only two elements, the principal examples being oxides, sulfides, and halides . Both cuprous and cupric oxides are known. Among

1843-424: A variety of minerals, including native copper , copper sulfides such as chalcopyrite , bornite , digenite , covellite , and chalcocite , copper sulfosalts such as tetrahedite-tennantite , and enargite , copper carbonates such as azurite and malachite , and as copper(I) or copper(II) oxides such as cuprite and tenorite , respectively. The largest mass of elemental copper discovered weighed 420 tonnes and

1940-436: A variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide , especially in the presence of amine ligands. Copper(III) is most often found in oxides. A simple example is potassium cuprate , KCuO 2 , a blue-black solid. The most extensively studied copper(III) compounds are the cuprate superconductors . Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBa 2 Cu 3 O 7 ) consists of both Cu(II) and Cu(III) centres. Like oxide, fluoride

2037-427: A wide variety of eukaryotes , including Saccharomyces cerevisiae as ATX1, and all contain a conserved metal binding domain. ATOX1 is an abbreviation of the full name Antioxidant Protein 1. The nomenclature stems from initial characterization that showed that ATOX1 protected cells from reactive oxygen species. Since then, the primary role of ATOX1 has been established as a copper metallochaperone protein found in

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2134-553: Is In case the diffusion coefficient is independent of x {\displaystyle x} , Fick's second law can be simplified to where Δ {\displaystyle \Delta } is the Laplace operator , Fick's law describes diffusion of an admixture in a medium. The concentration of this admixture should be small and the gradient of this concentration should be also small. The driving force of diffusion in Fick's law

2231-479: Is where ( J , ν ) {\displaystyle (\mathbf {J} ,{\boldsymbol {\nu }})} is the inner product and o ( ⋯ ) {\displaystyle o(\cdots )} is the little-o notation . If we use the notation of vector area Δ S = ν Δ S {\displaystyle \Delta \mathbf {S} ={\boldsymbol {\nu }}\,\Delta S} then The dimension of

2328-579: Is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin , replaced by the iron-complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates . In humans, copper is found mainly in the liver, muscle, and bone. The adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight. In the Roman era , copper was mined principally on Cyprus , the origin of the name of the metal, from aes cyprium (metal of Cyprus), later corrupted to cuprum (Latin). Coper ( Old English ) and copper were derived from this,

2425-405: Is a highly basic anion and is known to stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states. Both copper(III) and even copper(IV) fluorides are known, K 3 CuF 6 and Cs 2 CuF 6 , respectively. Some copper proteins form oxo complexes , which, in extensively studied synthetic analog systems, feature copper(III). With tetrapeptides , purple-colored copper(III) complexes are stabilized by

2522-648: Is a stochastic process due to the inherent randomness of the diffusing entity and can be used to model many real-life stochastic scenarios. Therefore, diffusion and the corresponding mathematical models are used in several fields beyond physics, such as statistics , probability theory , information theory , neural networks , finance , and marketing . The concept of diffusion is widely used in many fields, including physics ( particle diffusion ), chemistry , biology , sociology , economics , statistics , data science , and finance (diffusion of people, ideas, data and price values). The central idea of diffusion, however,

2619-536: Is a vector J {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} } representing the quantity and direction of transfer. Given a small area Δ S {\displaystyle \Delta S} with normal ν {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\nu }}} , the transfer of a physical quantity N {\displaystyle N} through the area Δ S {\displaystyle \Delta S} per time Δ t {\displaystyle \Delta t}

2716-401: Is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature originates primarily from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice, which are relatively weak in a soft metal. The maximum possible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3.1 × 10  A/m , above which it begins to heat excessively. Copper is one of a few metallic elements with

2813-407: Is common to all of these: a substance or collection undergoing diffusion spreads out from a point or location at which there is a higher concentration of that substance or collection. A gradient is the change in the value of a quantity; for example, concentration, pressure , or temperature with the change in another variable, usually distance . A change in concentration over a distance is called

2910-477: Is coordinated in a distorted linear geometry to sulfurs of cystine to form a bond angle of 120°. The overall -1 charge of the primary coordination sphere is stabilized through the secondary coordination sphere that contains a proximal positively charged lysine . ATOX1 also binds Hg(II), Cd(II), Ag(I), and cisplatin via this motif, but a physiological role, if any, is not yet known. ATOX1 transfers Cu(I) to transporters ATP7A and ATP7B . Transfer occurs via

3007-436: Is intensity of any local source of this quantity (for example, the rate of a chemical reaction). For the diffusion equation, the no-flux boundary conditions can be formulated as ( J ( x ) , ν ( x ) ) = 0 {\displaystyle (\mathbf {J} (x),{\boldsymbol {\nu }}(x))=0} on the boundary, where ν {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\nu }}}

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3104-529: Is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots ; lower-purity scrap is refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid . The environmental cost of copper mining was estimated at 3.7 kg CO2eq per kg of copper in 2019. Codelco, a major producer in Chile, reported that in 2020 the company emitted 2.8t CO2eq per ton (2.8 kg CO2eq per kg) of fine copper. Greenhouse gas emissions primarily arise from electricity consumed by

3201-444: Is one of the most important constituents of silver and karat gold solders used in the jewelry industry, modifying the color, hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys. Some lead-free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals. The alloy of copper and nickel , called cupronickel , is used in low-denomination coins, often for the outer cladding. The US five-cent coin (currently called

3298-437: Is recovered from mine tailings and heaps. A variety of methods are used including leaching with sulfuric acid, ammonia, ferric chloride. Biological methods are also used. A significant source of copper is from recycling. Recycling is facilitated because copper is usually deployed in its metallic state. In 2001, a typical automobile contained 20–30 kg of copper. Recycling usually begins with some melting process using

3395-500: Is said to be under kinetic control rather than thermodynamic control. Although there are presently no known diseases directly associated with ATOX1 malfunction, there is currently active research in a few areas: Copper Copper is a chemical element ; it has symbol Cu (from Latin cuprum ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity . A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has

3492-412: Is the j {\displaystyle j} th thermodynamic force and L i j {\displaystyle L_{ij}} is Onsager's matrix of kinetic transport coefficients . The thermodynamic forces for the transport processes were introduced by Onsager as the space gradients of the derivatives of the entropy density s {\displaystyle s} (he used

3589-528: Is the antigradient of concentration, − ∇ n {\displaystyle -\nabla n} . In 1931, Lars Onsager included the multicomponent transport processes in the general context of linear non-equilibrium thermodynamics. For multi-component transport, where J i {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} _{i}} is the flux of the i {\displaystyle i} th physical quantity (component), X j {\displaystyle X_{j}}

3686-435: Is the characteristic of advection . The term convection is used to describe the combination of both transport phenomena . If a diffusion process can be described by Fick's laws , it is called a normal diffusion (or Fickian diffusion); Otherwise, it is called an anomalous diffusion (or non-Fickian diffusion). When talking about the extent of diffusion, two length scales are used in two different scenarios: "Bulk flow"

3783-415: Is the movement/flow of an entire body due to a pressure gradient (for example, water coming out of a tap). "Diffusion" is the gradual movement/dispersion of concentration within a body with no net movement of matter. An example of a process where both bulk motion and diffusion occur is human breathing. First, there is a "bulk flow" process. The lungs are located in the thoracic cavity , which expands as

3880-434: Is the normal to the boundary at point x {\displaystyle x} . Fick's first law: The diffusion flux, J {\displaystyle \mathbf {J} } , is proportional to the negative gradient of spatial concentration, n ( x , t ) {\displaystyle n(x,t)} : where D is the diffusion coefficient . The corresponding diffusion equation (Fick's second law)

3977-458: Is universally recognized that atomic defects are necessary to mediate diffusion in crystals. Henry Eyring , with co-authors, applied his theory of absolute reaction rates to Frenkel's quasichemical model of diffusion. The analogy between reaction kinetics and diffusion leads to various nonlinear versions of Fick's law. Each model of diffusion expresses the diffusion flux with the use of concentrations, densities and their derivatives. Flux

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4074-411: Is used for various objects exposed to seawater, though it is vulnerable to the sulfides sometimes found in polluted harbors and estuaries. Alloys of copper with aluminium (about 7%) have a golden color and are used in decorations. Shakudō is a Japanese decorative alloy of copper containing a low percentage of gold, typically 4–10%, that can be patinated to a dark blue or black color. Copper forms

4171-480: Is used to model the stellar atmospheres of chemically peculiar stars . Diffusion of the elements is critical in understanding the surface composition of degenerate white dwarf stars and their evolution over time. In the scope of time, diffusion in solids was used long before the theory of diffusion was created. For example, Pliny the Elder had previously described the cementation process , which produces steel from

4268-457: The i {\displaystyle i} th component. The corresponding driving forces are the space vectors where T is the absolute temperature and μ i {\displaystyle \mu _{i}} is the chemical potential of the i {\displaystyle i} th component. It should be stressed that the separate diffusion equations describe the mixing or mass transport without bulk motion. Therefore,

4365-454: The Boltzmann equation , which has served mathematics and physics with a source of transport process ideas and concerns for more than 140 years. In 1920–1921, George de Hevesy measured self-diffusion using radioisotopes . He studied self-diffusion of radioactive isotopes of lead in the liquid and solid lead. Yakov Frenkel (sometimes, Jakov/Jacob Frenkel) proposed, and elaborated in 1926,

4462-675: The British Geological Survey , in 2005, Chile was the top producer of copper with at least one-third of the world share followed by the United States, Indonesia and Peru. Copper can also be recovered through the in-situ leach process. Several sites in the state of Arizona are considered prime candidates for this method. The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of usage. An alternative source of copper for collection currently being researched are polymetallic nodules , which are located at

4559-491: The Brownian motion and the atomistic backgrounds of diffusion were developed by Albert Einstein . The concept of diffusion is typically applied to any subject matter involving random walks in ensembles of individuals. In chemistry and materials science , diffusion also refers to the movement of fluid molecules in porous solids. Different types of diffusion are distinguished in porous solids. Molecular diffusion occurs when

4656-588: The Great Lakes may have also been mining copper during this time, making it one of the oldest known examples of copper extraction in the world. There is evidence from prehistoric lead pollution from lakes in Michigan that people in the region began mining copper c.  6000 BC . Evidence suggests that utilitarian copper objects fell increasingly out of use in the Old Copper Complex of North America during

4753-536: The International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report , the global per capita stock of copper in use in society is 35–55 kg. Much of this is in more-developed countries (140–300 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (30–40 kg per capita). The process of recycling copper is roughly the same as is used to extract copper but requires fewer steps. High-purity scrap copper

4850-699: The Neolithic period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone), when copper tools were used with stone tools. The term has gradually fallen out of favor because in some parts of the world, the Chalcolithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known to the Greeks, but became a significant supplement to bronze during

4947-521: The Vinča culture date to 4500 BC. Sumerian and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC. Egyptian Blue , or cuprorivaite (calcium copper silicate) is a synthetic pigment that contains copper and started being used in ancient Egypt around 3250 BC. The manufacturing process of Egyptian blue was known to the Romans, but by the fourth century AD the pigment fell out of use and

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5044-450: The blood in the body. Third, there is another "bulk flow" process. The pumping action of the heart then transports the blood around the body. As the left ventricle of the heart contracts, the volume decreases, which increases the pressure in the ventricle. This creates a pressure gradient between the heart and the capillaries, and blood moves through blood vessels by bulk flow down the pressure gradient. There are two ways to introduce

5141-403: The cytoplasm of eukaryotes. A metallochaperone is an important protein that has metal trafficking and sequestration roles. As a metal sequestration protein, ATOX1 is capable of binding free metals in vivo , in order to protect cells from generation of reactive oxygen species and mismetallation of metalloproteins . As a metal trafficking protein, ATOX1 is responsible for shuttling copper from

5238-414: The cytosol to ATPase transporters ATP7A and ATP7B that move copper to the trans-Golgi network or secretory vesicles . In Saccharomyces cerevisiae , Atx1 delivers Cu(I) to a homologous transporter, Ccc2. The delivery of copper to ATPase transporters is vital for the subsequent insertion of copper into ceruloplasmin , a ferroxidase required for iron metabolism, within the golgi apparatus. In addition to

5335-472: The kinetic coefficients L i j {\displaystyle L_{ij}} should be symmetric ( Onsager reciprocal relations ) and positive definite ( for the entropy growth ). The transport equations are Here, all the indexes i , j , k = 0, 1, 2, ... are related to the internal energy (0) and various components. The expression in the square brackets is the matrix D i k {\displaystyle D_{ik}} of

5432-539: The 9th or 10th century AD. Carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in Cheshire , UK, at 2280 to 1890 BC. Ötzi the Iceman , a male dated from 3300 to 3200 BC, was found with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest an involvement in copper smelting. Experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals; in particular, copper smelting likely led to

5529-512: The Bronze Age and a shift towards an increased production of ornamental copper objects occurred. Natural bronze, a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into general use in the Balkans around 5500 BC. Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper smelting, and about 2000 years after "natural bronze" had come into general use. Bronze artifacts from

5626-535: The Middle East; a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC. Evidence suggests that gold and meteoric iron (but not smelted iron) were the only metals used by humans before copper. The history of copper metallurgy is thought to follow this sequence: first, cold working of native copper, then annealing , smelting , and, finally, lost-wax casting . In southeastern Anatolia , all four of these techniques appear more or less simultaneously at

5723-550: The Roman Empire. Diffusion Diffusion is the net movement of anything (for example, atoms, ions, molecules, energy) generally from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in Gibbs free energy or chemical potential . It is possible to diffuse "uphill" from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration, as in spinodal decomposition . Diffusion

5820-521: The affected areas is highly acidic, with a pH range of 2.1–4.9, and shows elevated electrical conductivity levels between 280 and 1561 mS/cm. These changes in water chemistry make the environment inhospitable for fish, essentially rendering the water uninhabitable for aquatic life. Numerous copper alloys have been formulated, many with important uses. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc . Bronze usually refers to copper- tin alloys, but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze . Copper

5917-452: The alveoli and the blood in the capillaries that surround the alveoli. Oxygen then moves by diffusion, down the concentration gradient, into the blood. The other consequence of the air arriving in alveoli is that the concentration of carbon dioxide in the alveoli decreases. This creates a concentration gradient for carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood into the alveoli, as fresh air has a very low concentration of carbon dioxide compared to

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6014-531: The atmosphere; 150 mg/kg in soil; 30 mg/kg in vegetation; 2 μg/L in freshwater and 0.5 μg/L in seawater. Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0.4 to 1.0% copper. Sites include Chuquicamata , in Chile, Bingham Canyon Mine , in Utah, United States, and El Chino Mine , in New Mexico, United States. According to

6111-734: The beginning of the Neolithic c.  7500 BC . Copper smelting was independently invented in different places. The earliest evidence of lost-wax casting copper comes from an amulet found in Mehrgarh , Pakistan, and is dated to 4000 BC. Investment casting was invented in 4500–4000 BC in Southeast Asia Smelting was probably discovered in China before 2800 BC, in Central America around 600 AD, and in West Africa about

6208-426: The cell, the probability that oxygen molecules will enter the cell is higher than the probability that oxygen molecules will leave the cell. Therefore, the "net" movement of oxygen molecules (the difference between the number of molecules either entering or leaving the cell) is into the cell. In other words, there is a net movement of oxygen molecules down the concentration gradient. In astronomy , atomic diffusion

6305-402: The collision with another molecule is more likely than the collision with the pore walls. Under such conditions, the diffusivity is similar to that in a non-confined space and is proportional to the mean free path. Knudsen diffusion occurs when the pore diameter is comparable to or smaller than the mean free path of the molecule diffusing through the pore. Under this condition, the collision with

6402-527: The company, especially when sourced from fossil fuels, and from engines required for copper extraction and refinement. Companies that mine land often mismanage waste, rendering the area sterile for life. Additionally, nearby rivers and forests are also negatively impacted. The Philippines is an example of a region where land is overexploited by mining companies. Copper mining waste in Valea Şesei, Romania, has significantly altered nearby water properties. The water in

6499-416: The concept of the mean free path . In the same year, James Clerk Maxwell developed the first atomistic theory of transport processes in gases. The modern atomistic theory of diffusion and Brownian motion was developed by Albert Einstein , Marian Smoluchowski and Jean-Baptiste Perrin . Ludwig Boltzmann , in the development of the atomistic backgrounds of the macroscopic transport processes , introduced

6596-522: The deprotonated amide ligands. Complexes of copper(III) are also found as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds, for example in the Kharasch–Sosnovsky reaction . A timeline of copper illustrates how this metal has advanced human civilization for the past 11,000 years. Copper occurs naturally as native metallic copper and was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record. The history of copper use dates to 9000 BC in

6693-454: The depths of the Pacific Ocean approximately 3000–6500 meters below sea level. These nodules contain other valuable metals such as cobalt and nickel . Copper has been in use for at least 10,000 years, but more than 95% of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900. As with many natural resources, the total amount of copper on Earth is vast, with around 10 tons in

6790-462: The diffusing particles. In molecular diffusion , the moving molecules in a gas, liquid, or solid are self-propelled by kinetic energy. Random walk of small particles in suspension in a fluid was discovered in 1827 by Robert Brown , who found that minute particle suspended in a liquid medium and just large enough to be visible under an optical microscope exhibit a rapid and continually irregular motion of particles known as Brownian movement. The theory of

6887-400: The diffusion flux is proportional to the negative gradient of concentrations. It goes from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. Sometime later, various generalizations of Fick's laws were developed in the frame of thermodynamics and non-equilibrium thermodynamics . From the atomistic point of view , diffusion is considered as a result of the random walk of

6984-595: The diffusion ( i , k  > 0), thermodiffusion ( i  > 0, k  = 0 or k  > 0, i  = 0) and thermal conductivity ( i = k = 0 ) coefficients. Under isothermal conditions T  = constant. The relevant thermodynamic potential is the free energy (or the free entropy ). The thermodynamic driving forces for the isothermal diffusion are antigradients of chemical potentials, − ( 1 / T ) ∇ μ j {\displaystyle -(1/T)\,\nabla \mu _{j}} , and

7081-397: The diffusion flux is [flux] = [quantity]/([time]·[area]). The diffusing physical quantity N {\displaystyle N} may be the number of particles, mass, energy, electric charge, or any other scalar extensive quantity . For its density, n {\displaystyle n} , the diffusion equation has the form where W {\displaystyle W}

7178-550: The discovery of iron smelting . Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and Wisconsin is dated between 6500 and 3000 BC. A copper spearpoint found in Wisconsin has been dated to 6500 BC. Copper usage by the indigenous peoples of the Old Copper Complex from the Great Lakes region of North America has been radiometrically dated to as far back as 7500 BC. Indigenous peoples of North America around

7275-496: The element iron (Fe) through carbon diffusion. Another example is well known for many centuries, the diffusion of colors of stained glass or earthenware and Chinese ceramics . In modern science, the first systematic experimental study of diffusion was performed by Thomas Graham . He studied diffusion in gases, and the main phenomenon was described by him in 1831–1833: "...gases of different nature, when brought into contact, do not arrange themselves according to their density,

7372-545: The fastest water exchange rate (speed of water ligands attaching and detaching) for any transition metal aquo complex . Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of light blue solid copper(II) hydroxide . A simplified equation is: Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate. Upon adding excess ammonia, the precipitate dissolves, forming tetraamminecopper(II) : Many other oxyanions form complexes; these include copper(II) acetate , copper(II) nitrate , and copper(II) carbonate . Copper(II) sulfate forms

7469-409: The first step in external respiration. This expansion leads to an increase in volume of the alveoli in the lungs, which causes a decrease in pressure in the alveoli. This creates a pressure gradient between the air outside the body at relatively high pressure and the alveoli at relatively low pressure. The air moves down the pressure gradient through the airways of the lungs and into the alveoli until

7566-541: The heaviest undermost, and the lighter uppermost, but they spontaneously diffuse, mutually and equally, through each other, and so remain in the intimate state of mixture for any length of time." The measurements of Graham contributed to James Clerk Maxwell deriving, in 1867, the coefficient of diffusion for CO 2 in the air. The error rate is less than 5%. In 1855, Adolf Fick , the 26-year-old anatomy demonstrator from Zürich, proposed his law of diffusion . He used Graham's research, stating his goal as "the development of

7663-472: The idea of diffusion in crystals through local defects (vacancies and interstitial atoms). He concluded, the diffusion process in condensed matter is an ensemble of elementary jumps and quasichemical interactions of particles and defects. He introduced several mechanisms of diffusion and found rate constants from experimental data. Sometime later, Carl Wagner and Walter H. Schottky developed Frenkel's ideas about mechanisms of diffusion further. Presently, it

7760-511: The later spelling first used around 1530. Copper, silver , and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table; these three metals have one s-orbital electron on top of a filled d- electron shell and are characterized by high ductility , and electrical and thermal conductivity. The filled d-shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions, which are dominated by the s-electrons through metallic bonds . Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in copper are lacking

7857-419: The level of <1% Cu. Concentration of the ore is required, which begins with comminution followed by froth flotation . The remaining concentrate is the smelted, which can be described with two simplified equations: Cuprous oxide reacts with cuprous sulfide to convert to blister copper upon heating This roasting gives matte copper, roughly 50% Cu by weight, which is purified by electrolysis. Depending on

7954-401: The matrix of diffusion coefficients is ( i,k  > 0). There is intrinsic arbitrariness in the definition of the thermodynamic forces and kinetic coefficients because they are not measurable separately and only their combinations ∑ j L i j X j {\textstyle \sum _{j}L_{ij}X_{j}} can be measured. For example, in

8051-490: The metallochaperone function, recent reports have characterized ATOX1 as a cyclin D1 transcription factor . ATOX1 has a ferrodoxin -like βαββαβ fold and coordinates to Cu(I) via a MXCXXC binding motif located in between the first β-sheet and α-helix. The metal binding motif is largely solvent exposed in Apo -ATOX1 and a conformational change is induced upon coordination to Cu(I). Cu(I)

8148-472: The modern world. The price of copper is volatile . After a peak in 2022 the price unexpectedly fell. The global market for copper is one of the most commodified and financialized of the commodity markets , and has been so for decades. The great majority of copper ores are sulfides. Common ores are the sulfides chalcopyrite (CuFeS 2 ), bornite (Cu 5 FeS 4 ) and, to a lesser extent, covellite (CuS) and chalcocite (Cu 2 S). These ores occur at

8245-433: The notion of diffusion : either a phenomenological approach starting with Fick's laws of diffusion and their mathematical consequences, or a physical and atomistic one, by considering the random walk of the diffusing particles . In the phenomenological approach, diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration without bulk motion . According to Fick's laws,

8342-516: The numerous copper sulfides , important examples include copper(I) sulfide ( Cu 2 S ) and copper monosulfide ( CuS ). Cuprous halides with fluorine , chlorine , bromine , and iodine are known, as are cupric halides with fluorine , chlorine , and bromine . Attempts to prepare copper(II) iodide yield only copper(I) iodide and iodine. Copper forms coordination complexes with ligands . In aqueous solution, copper(II) exists as [Cu(H 2 O) 6 ] . This complex exhibits

8439-428: The ore, sometimes other metals are obtained during the electrolysis including platinum and gold. Aside from sulfides, another family of ores are oxides. Approximately 15% of the world's copper supply derives from these oxides. The beneficiation process for oxides involves extraction with sulfuric acid solutions followed by electrolysis. In parallel with the above method for "concentrated" sulfide and oxide ores, copper

8536-404: The pore walls becomes gradually more likely and the diffusivity is lower. Finally there is configurational diffusion, which happens if the molecules have comparable size to that of the pore. Under this condition, the diffusivity is much lower compared to molecular diffusion and small differences in the kinetic diameter of the molecule cause large differences in diffusivity . Biologists often use

8633-399: The pressure of the air and that in the alveoli are equal, that is, the movement of air by bulk flow stops once there is no longer a pressure gradient. Second, there is a "diffusion" process. The air arriving in the alveoli has a higher concentration of oxygen than the "stale" air in the alveoli. The increase in oxygen concentration creates a concentration gradient for oxygen between the air in

8730-715: The secret to its manufacturing process became lost. The Romans said the blue pigment was made from copper, silica, lime and natron and was known to them as caeruleum . The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around 3700–3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age, 2000–1000 BC in the Near East, and 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between

8827-438: The sugar is signaled by a color change from blue Cu(II) to reddish copper(I) oxide. Schweizer's reagent and related complexes with ethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose . Amino acids such as cystine form very stable chelate complexes with copper(II) including in the form of metal-organic biohybrids (MOBs). Many wet-chemical tests for copper ions exist, one involving potassium ferricyanide , which gives

8924-407: The term "force" in quotation marks or "driving force"): where n i {\displaystyle n_{i}} are the "thermodynamic coordinates". For the heat and mass transfer one can take n 0 = u {\displaystyle n_{0}=u} (the density of internal energy) and n i {\displaystyle n_{i}} is the concentration of

9021-421: The terms "net movement" or "net diffusion" to describe the movement of ions or molecules by diffusion. For example, oxygen can diffuse through cell membranes so long as there is a higher concentration of oxygen outside the cell. However, because the movement of molecules is random, occasionally oxygen molecules move out of the cell (against the concentration gradient). Because there are more oxygen molecules outside

9118-444: The terms with variation of the total pressure are neglected. It is possible for diffusion of small admixtures and for small gradients. For the linear Onsager equations, we must take the thermodynamic forces in the linear approximation near equilibrium: where the derivatives of s {\displaystyle s} are calculated at equilibrium n ∗ {\displaystyle n^{*}} . The matrix of

9215-399: The top kilometer of Earth's crust, which is about 5 million years' worth at the current rate of extraction. However, only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable with present-day prices and technologies. Estimates of copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 to 60 years, depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate. Recycling is a major source of copper in

9312-515: Was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan, US. Native copper is a polycrystal , with the largest single crystal ever described measuring 4.4 × 3.2 × 3.2 cm . Copper is the 26th most abundant element in Earth's crust , representing 50 ppm compared with 75 ppm for zinc , and 14 ppm for lead . Typical background concentrations of copper do not exceed 1 ng/m in

9409-450: Was not systematically studied until the second part of the 19th century. William Chandler Roberts-Austen , the well-known British metallurgist and former assistant of Thomas Graham studied systematically solid state diffusion on the example of gold in lead in 1896. : "... My long connection with Graham's researches made it almost a duty to attempt to extend his work on liquid diffusion to metals." In 1858, Rudolf Clausius introduced

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