A blood test is a laboratory analysis performed on a blood sample that is usually extracted from a vein in the arm using a hypodermic needle , or via fingerprick . Multiple tests for specific blood components, such as a glucose test or a cholesterol test , are often grouped together into one test panel called a blood panel or blood work . Blood tests are often used in health care to determine physiological and biochemical states, such as disease , mineral content, pharmaceutical drug effectiveness, and organ function. Typical clinical blood panels include a basic metabolic panel or a complete blood count . Blood tests are also used in drug tests to detect drug abuse.
31-489: The partial thromboplastin time ( PTT ), also known as the activated partial thromboplastin time ( aPTT or APTT ), is a blood test that characterizes coagulation of the blood . A historical name for this measure is the Kaolin-cephalin clotting time ( KCCT ), reflecting kaolin and cephalin as materials historically used in the test. Apart from detecting abnormalities in blood clotting, partial thromboplastin time
62-450: A lipid profile , require fasting (or no food consumption) eight to twelve hours prior to the drawing of the blood sample. For the majority of tests, blood is usually obtained from the patient's vein. Other specialized tests, such as the arterial blood gas test, require blood extracted from an artery . Blood gas analysis of arterial blood is primarily used to monitor carbon dioxide and oxygen levels related to pulmonary function, but
93-563: A combination of tissue factor and phospholipids . In contrast, APTT employs partial thromboplastin, containing only phospholipids and no tissue factor—hence the term "partial thromboplastin time." An activator is used in the APTT test to initiate the intrinsic pathway of blood coagulation. Common activators include kaolin, silica, celite, and ellagic acid. The typical reference range is between 25 seconds and 33 s (depending on laboratory). Longer times of up to 50 s do apply to infants. Shortening of
124-402: A low factor VIII level) may lead to a prolonged aPTT correcting on mixing studies. The aPTT is usually normal in pregnancy but tends to slightly decrease in late pregnancy. The aPTT-based activated protein C (APC) resistance test is used in the diagnosis of APC resistance (APCR). It involves a modified aPTT test performed in the presence and absence of APC. The ratio of these aPTT values
155-479: A polar head group, phosphatidylethanolamine creates a more viscous lipid membrane compared to phosphatidylcholine . For example, the melting temperature of di-oleoyl-phosphatidylethanolamine is -16 °C while the melting temperature of di-oleoyl-phosphatidylcholine is -20 °C. If the lipids had two palmitoyl chains, phosphatidylethanolamine would melt at 63 °C while phosphatidylcholine would melt already at 41 °C. Lower melting temperatures correspond, in
186-406: A role in supporting lactose permeases active transport of lactose into the cell, and may play a role in other transport systems as well. Phosphatidylethanolamine plays a role in the assembly of lactose permease and other membrane proteins. It acts as a 'chaperone' to help the membrane proteins correctly fold their tertiary structures so that they can function properly. When phosphatidylethanolamine
217-411: A simplistic view, to more fluid membranes. In humans, metabolism of phosphatidylethanolamine is thought to be important in the heart. When blood flow to the heart is restricted, the asymmetrical distribution of phosphatidylethanolamine between membrane leaflets is disrupted, and as a result the membrane is disrupted. Additionally, phosphatidylethanolamine plays a role in the secretion of lipoproteins in
248-430: A wide variety of foods such as chocolate , soybean milk , infant formula , and other processed foods . The levels of Amadori-phosphatidylethanolamine products are higher in foods with high lipid and sugar concentrations that have high temperatures in processing. Additional studies have found that Amadori-phosphatidylethanolamine may play a role in vascular disease , act as the mechanism by which diabetes can increase
279-495: Is a class of phospholipids found in biological membranes . They are synthesized by the addition of cytidine diphosphate - ethanolamine to diglycerides , releasing cytidine monophosphate . S -Adenosyl methionine can subsequently methylate the amine of phosphatidylethanolamines to yield phosphatidylcholines . Phosphatidylethanolamines are found in all living cells, composing 25% of all phospholipids. In human physiology, they are found particularly in nervous tissue such as
310-414: Is a unique characteristic of it. Phosphatidylethanolamine is also thought to play a role in blood clotting, as it works with phosphatidylserine to increase the rate of thrombin formation by promoting binding to factor V and factor X , two proteins which catalyze the formation of thrombin from prothrombin . The synthesis of endocannabinoid anandamide is performed from the phosphatidylethanolamine by
341-447: Is also made via the cytidine diphosphate-ethanolamine pathway, using ethanolamine as the substrate. Through several steps taking place in both the cytosol and endoplasmic reticulum , the synthesis pathway yields the end product of phosphatidylethanolamine. Phosphatidylethanolamine is also found abundantly in soy or egg lecithin and is produced commercially using chromatographic separation. Synthesis of phosphatidylethanolamine through
SECTION 10
#1732868834151372-494: Is also used to measure blood pH and bicarbonate levels for certain metabolic conditions. While the regular glucose test is taken at a certain point in time, the glucose tolerance test involves repeated testing to determine the rate at which glucose is processed by the body. Blood tests are also used to identify autoimmune diseases and Immunoglobulin E -mediated food allergies (see also Radioallergosorbent test ). Blood tests results should always be interpreted using
403-592: Is also used to monitor the treatment effect of heparin , a widely prescribed drug that reduces blood's tendency to clot . The PTT measures the overall speed at which blood clots form by means of two consecutive series of biochemical reactions known as the intrinsic pathway and common pathway of coagulation . The PTT indirectly measures action of the following coagulation factors : I (fibrinogen) , II (prothrombin) , V (proaccelerin) , VIII (anti-hemophilic factor) , X (Stuart–Prower factor) , XI (plasma thromboplastin antecedent) , and XII (Hageman factor) . The PTT
434-597: Is calculated and is called the APC sensitivity ratio (APCsr) or simply APC ratio (APCr). This ratio is inversely related to the degree of APC resistance. The aPTT-based APC resistance test was developed in 1993. The partial thromboplastin time was first described in 1953 by researchers at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill . The initial exogenous phospholipid used in PTT testing was Cephalin . Blood test A venipuncture
465-586: Is currently unknown but may play a role in the regulation of the rate of synthesis in this pathway. Phosphatidylethanolamines in food break down to form phosphatidylethanolamine-linked Amadori products as a part of the Maillard reaction . These products accelerate membrane lipid peroxidation , causing oxidative stress to cells that come in contact with them. Oxidative stress is known to cause food deterioration and several diseases. Significant levels of Amadori-phosphatidylethanolamine products have been found in
496-456: Is not present, the transport proteins have incorrect tertiary structures and do not function correctly. Phosphatidylethanolamine also enables bacterial multidrug transporters to function properly and allows the formation of intermediates that are needed for the transporters to properly open and close. As a lecithin , phosphatidylethanolamine consists of a combination of glycerol esterified with two fatty acids and phosphoric acid . Whereas
527-509: Is often used in conjunction with another measure of how quickly blood clotting takes place called the prothrombin time (PT). The PT measures the speed of clotting by means of the extrinsic pathway and common pathway . Activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) is typically analyzed by a medical technologist or laboratory technician, either manually or using an automated instrument at 37°C, which approximates normal human body temperature. Prothrombin time utilizes complete thromboplastin ,
558-448: Is the enzyme that is used to decarboxylate phosphatidylserine in the first pathway. The phosphatidylserine decarboxylation pathway is the main source of synthesis for phosphatidylethanolamine in the membranes of the mitochondria . Phosphatidylethanolamine produced in the mitochondrial membrane is also transported throughout the cell to other membranes for use. In a process that mirrors phosphatidylcholine synthesis, phosphatidylethanolamine
589-429: Is useful as it is a minimally invasive way to obtain cells and extracellular fluid ( plasma ) from the body for analysis. Blood flows throughout the body, acting as a medium that provides oxygen and nutrients to tissues and carries waste products back to the excretory systems for disposal. Consequently, the state of the bloodstream affects or is affected by, many medical conditions. For these reasons, blood tests are
620-411: The phosphatidylserine decarboxylation pathway occurs rapidly in the inner mitochondrial membrane . However, phosphatidylserine is made in the endoplasmic reticulum . Because of this, the transport of phosphatidylserine from the endoplasmic reticulum to the mitochondrial membrane and then to the inner mitochondrial membrane limits the rate of synthesis via this pathway. The mechanism for this transport
651-471: The white matter of brain , nerves, neural tissue, and in spinal cord , where they make up 45% of all phospholipids. Phosphatidylethanolamines play a role in membrane fusion and in disassembly of the contractile ring during cytokinesis in cell division . Additionally, it is thought that phosphatidylethanolamine regulates membrane curvature . Phosphatidylethanolamine is an important precursor, substrate , or donor in several biological pathways. As
SECTION 20
#1732868834151682-430: The PTT is considered to have little clinical relevance, but some research indicates that it might increase risk of thromboembolism . Normal PTT requires the presence of the following coagulation factors: I, II, V, VIII, IX, X, XI and XII. Notably, deficiencies in factors VII or XIII will not be detected with the PTT test. Prolonged aPTT may indicate: To distinguish the above causes, mixing tests are performed, in which
713-471: The blood. Also, respiratory therapists are trained to extract arterial blood to examine arterial blood gases . A basic metabolic panel measures sodium , potassium , chloride , bicarbonate , blood urea nitrogen (BUN), magnesium , creatinine , glucose , and sometimes calcium . Tests that focus on cholesterol levels can determine LDL and HDL cholesterol levels, as well as triglyceride levels. Some tests, such as those that measure glucose or
744-775: The exact size and spacing of the droplets. The new test could improve the efficiency, accuracy, and speed of laboratory tests while also doing it cheaply. In March 2011, a team of researchers from UC Berkeley , DCU and University of Valparaíso have developed lab-on-a-chip that can diagnose diseases within 10 minutes without the use of external tubing and extra components. It is called Self-powered Integrated Microfluidic Blood Analysis System (SIMBAS). It uses tiny trenches to separate blood cells from plasma (99 percent of blood cells were captured during experiments). Researchers used plastic components, to reduce manufacturing costs. Cephalin Phosphatidylethanolamine ( PE )
775-460: The liver. This is because vesicles for secretion of very low-density lipoproteins coming off of the Golgi apparatus have a significantly higher phosphatidylethanolamine concentration when compared to other vesicles containing very low-density lipoproteins. Phosphatidylethanolamine has also shown to be able to propagate infectious prions without the assistance of any proteins or nucleic acids , which
806-463: The most commonly performed medical tests . If only a few drops of blood are needed, a fingerstick is performed instead of a venipuncture . Indwelling arterial, central venous and peripheral venous lines can also be used to draw blood. Phlebotomists , laboratory practitioners and nurses are those in charge of extracting blood from a patient. However, in special circumstances, and/or emergency situations, paramedics and physicians extract
837-417: The patient's plasma is mixed (initially at a 50:50 dilution) with normal plasma. If the abnormality does not disappear, the sample is said to contain an "inhibitor" (either heparin, antiphospholipid antibodies or coagulation factor specific inhibitors), while if it does disappear a factor deficiency is more likely. Deficiencies of factors VIII , IX , XI and XII and rarely von Willebrand factor (if causing
868-447: The phosphate group is combined with choline in phosphatidylcholine, it is combined with ethanolamine in phosphatidylethanolamine. The two fatty acids may be identical or different, and are usually found in positions 1,2 (less commonly in positions 1,3). The phosphatidylserine decarboxylation pathway and the cytidine diphosphate-ethanolamine pathways are used to synthesize phosphatidylethanolamine. Phosphatidylserine decarboxylase
899-462: The proteins found in blood. Saliva testing may not be appropriate or available for all markers. For example, lipid levels cannot be measured with saliva testing. In February 2011, Canadian researchers at the University of Calgary's Schulich School of Engineering announced a microchip for blood tests. Dubbed a microemulsion, a droplet of blood captured inside a layer of another substance. It can control
930-444: The ranges provided by the laboratory that performed the test. Example ranges are shown below. Upon completion of a blood test analysis, patients may receive a report with blood test abbreviations. Examples of common blood test abbreviations are shown below. (UK: FBC) (UK: Full Blood Count) In 2008, scientists announced that the more cost effective saliva testing could eventually replace some blood tests, as saliva contains 20% of
961-436: The successive action of two enzymes, N - acetyltransferase and phospholipase -D. Where phosphatidylcholine is the principal phospholipid in animals, phosphatidylethanolamine is the principal one in bacteria . One of the primary roles for phosphatidylethanolamine in bacterial membranes is to spread out the negative charge caused by anionic membrane phospholipids . In the bacterium E. coli , phosphatidylethanolamine play